BUDDHIST MONASTIC TRADITIONS OF SOUTHERN ASIA A RECORD OF THE INNER LAW SENT HOME FROM THE SOUTH SEAS (2024)

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BDKEnglishTripitaka93-1

BUDDHISTMONASTICTRADITIONS OFSOUTHNASIA

ARECORDOFTHEINNERLAWSENTHOME

FROMTHESOUTHSEAS

by

SramanaYijing

TranslatedfromtheChinese(TaishôVolume54,Number 2125)

by

LiRongxi

NumataCenter

forBuddhistTranslationandResearch

2000

©20000 by Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and NumataCenterforBuddhistTranslationandResearch

Allrightsreserved.Nopartof thisbookmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortranscribedinanyformor

byanymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwise withoutthe

priorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.

FirstPrinting,2000

ISBN:1-886439-09-5

LibraryofCongressCatalogCardNumber:98-67122

Publishedby

NumataCenterforBuddhistTranslationandResearch

2620WarringStreet

Berkeley,California94704

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

AMessageonthePublicationoftheEnglishTripitaka

TheBuddhistcanonissaidtocontaineighty-fourthousanddifferentteachings.IbelievethatthisisbecausetheBuddha’sbasicapproachwastoprescribeadifferenttreatmentforeveryspiritualailment,muchasadoctorprescribesadifferentmedicineforeverymedicalailment.Thushisteachingswerealwaysappropriateforthepar­ticularsufferingindividualandforthetimeatwhichtheteachingwasgiven,andovertheagesnotoneof hisprescriptionshasfailedtorelievethesufferingtowhichitwasaddressed.

EversincetheBuddha’sGreatDemiseovertwenty-fivehundredyearsago,hismessageof wisdomandcompassionhasspreadthrough­outtheworld.YetnoonehaseverattemptedtotranslatetheentireBuddhistcanonintoEnglishthroughoutthehistoryofJapan.Itismygreatestwishtoseethisdoneandtomakethetranslationsavail­abletothemanyEnglish-speakingpeoplewhohaveneverhadtheopportunitytolearnabouttheBuddha’steachings.

Ofcourse,itwouldbeimpossibletotranslatealloftheBuddha’seighty-fourthousandteachingsinafewyears.Ihave, therefore,hadonehundredthirty-nineofthescripturaltextsintheprodigiousTaishoeditionoftheChineseBuddhistcanonselectedforinclusionintheFirstSeriesofthistranslationproject.

Itis inthenatureof thisundertaking thatthe resultsareboundtobecriticized.Nonetheless,Iamconvincedthatunlesssomeonetakesituponhimselforherselftoinitiatethisproject,itwillneverbedone.Atthesametime,Ihopethatanimproved,revisededitionwillappearinthefuture.

It ismostgratifyingthat,thankstotheeffortsof morethanahundredBuddhistscholars fromtheEastand the West,thismonu­mentalprojecthasfinallygottenoff theground.Maytheraysof theWisdomoftheCompassionateOnereacheachandeverypersonintheworld.

NumataYehan

FounderoftheEnglish

August7,1991TripitakaProject

EditorialForeword

InJanuary1982,Dr.NumataYehan,thefounderoftheBukkyoDendoKyokai(SocietyforthePromotionofBuddhism),decidedtobeginthemonumentaltaskoftranslatingthecompleteTaishoedi­tionoftheChineseTripitaka(BuddhistCanon)intotheEnglishlan­guage.Underhisleadership,aspecialpreparatorycommitteewasorganizedinApril1982.ByJ ulyofthesameyear,theTranslationCommitteeoftheEnglishTripitakawasofficiallyconvened.

The initial Committee consisted of the following members: (late) Hanayama Shoyu (Chairperson); Bando Shojun; Ishigami Zenno; Kamata Shigeo; Kanaoka Shuyu; Mayeda Sengaku; Nara Yasuaki; Sayeki Shinko; (late) Shioiri Ryotatsu; Tamaru Noriyoshi; (late) Tamura Kwansei; Uryuzu Ryushin; and Y uyama Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: Kanazawa Atsushi; Watanabe Shogo; Rolf Giebel of New Zealand; and Rudy Smet of Belgium.

Afterholdingplanningmeetingsonamonthlybasis,theCom­mitteeselectedonehundredthirty-ninetextsfortheFirstSeriesoftranslations,anestimatedonehundredprintedvolumesinall.ThetextsselectedarenotnecessarilylimitedtothoseoriginallywritteninIndiabutalsoincludeworkswrittenorcomposedinChinaandJapan.WhilethepublicationoftheFirstSeriesproceeds,thetextsfortheSecondSerieswillbeselectedfromamongtheremainingworks;thisprocesswillcontinueuntilallthetexts,inJapaneseaswellasinChinese,havebeenpublished.

Franklyspeaking,itwilltakeperhapsonehundredyearsormoretoaccomplishtheEnglishtranslationofthecompleteChineseandJapanesetexts,fortheyconsistofthousandsof works.Nevertheless,asDr.Nu ma t awished,itisthesincerehopeof theCommitteethatthisprojectwillcontinueuntocompletion,evenafterallitspresentmembershavepassedaway.

Itmustbementionedherethatthefinalobjectofthisprojectisnotacademicfulfillmentbutthetransmissionoftheteachingofthe

vii

EditorialForeword

Buddhatothewholeworldinordertocreateharmonyandpeaceamonghumankind.Tothatend,thetranslatorshavebeenaskedtominimizetheuseofexplanatorynotesofthekindthatareindispens­ableinacademictexts,sothattheattentionofgeneralreaderswillnotbeundulydistractedfromtheprimarytext.Also,aglossaryofselectedtermsisappendedtoaidinunderstandingthetext.

Tomygreatregret,however,Dr.NumatapassedawayonMay

5,1994,attheageofninety-seven,entrustinghisson,Mr.NumataToshihide,withthecontinuationandcompletionoftheTranslationProject.TheCommitteealsolostit*ableanddevotedChairperson,ProfessorHanayamaShoyu,onJune16,1995,attheageofsixty-three.Afterthesesevereblows,theCommitteeelectedme,Vice-PresidentofMusashinoWomen’sCollege,tobetheChairinOcto­ber1995.TheCommitteehasreneweditsdeterminationtocarryoutthenobleintentionofDr.Nu ma t a,underthe leadershipof Mr.NumataToshihide.

ThepresentmembersoftheCommitteeareMayedaSengaku

(Chairperson),BandoShojun,IshigamiZenno,IchishimaShoshin,KamataShigeo,KanaokaShuyu,Nar aYasuaki,SayekiShinko,TamaruNoriyoshi,UryuzuRyushin,andYuyam aAkira.AssistantmembersareWatanabeShogoandUedaNoboro.

TheNumataCenterforBuddhistTranslationandResearchwas

establishedinNovember1984,inBerkeley,California,U.S.A.,toas­sistinthepublicationoftheBDKEnglishTripitakaFirstSeries.InDecember1991,thePublicationCommitteewasorganizedattheNumataCenter,withProfessorPhilipYampolskyastheChairperson.Tooursorrow,ProfessorYampolskypassedawayinJuly1996,butthankfullyDr.KennethInadaiscontinuingtheworkasChairper­son.Thistextis theeighteenthvolumeto bepublishedanddistributedbytheNumataCenter.AlloftheremainingtextswillbepublishedunderthesupervisionofthisCommittee,inclosecooperationwiththeTranslationCommitteeinTokyo.

MayedaSengaku

Chairperson

TranslationCommitteeof

June28,1999theBDKEnglishTripitaka

viii

Publisher’sForeword

ThePublicationCommitteeworksinclosecooperationwiththeEditorialCommitteeoftheBDKEnglishTripitakainTokyo,Japan.SinceDecember1991,ithasoperatedfromtheNumataCenterforBuddhistTranslationandResearchinBerkeley,California.ItsprincipalmissionistooverseeandfacilitatethepublicationinEnglishofselectedtextsfromtheonehundred-volumeTaishoEditionoftheChineseTripitaka,alongwithafewmajorinfluentialJapaneseBuddhisttextsnotintheTripitaka.Thelistof selectedtextsisconvenientlyappendedattheendofeachvolume.Inthetextit*elf,theTaishoEditionpageandcolumndesignationsareprovidedinthemargins.

TheCommitteeiscommittedto thetaskofpublishingclear,read­ableEnglishtexts.Ithonorsthedeepfaith,spirit,andconcernof thelateReverendDoctorNumataYehantodisseminateBuddhistteach­ingsthroughouttheworld.

InJuly1996,the Committeeunfortunatelylost itsvaluedChair­person,Dr.PhilipYampolsky,whowasastalwartleader,trustedfriend,andesteemedcolleague.Wefollowinhisshadow.InFebru­ary1997,1wasappointedtoguidetheCommitteeinhisplace.

TheCommitteeischarged with thenormaldutiesof apublish­ingfirm—generalediting,formatting,copyediting,proofreading,in­dexing,and checking linguistic fidelity. TheCommitteemembersareDianeAmes,EishoNasu,KohNishiike,andthepresidentanddirec­toroftheNumataCenter,ReverendKiyoshiS.Yamash*ta.

KennethK.Inada

Chairperson

June28,1999PublicationCommittee

IX

Contents

AMessageonthePublicationoftheEnglishTripitaka

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeasFascicleOne

Foreword7

1.NoDegradationIsCausedbyaBreachoftheSummer

Retreat21

2.BehaviortowardstheHonoredOnes21

3.SittingonSmallChairsatMealtimes22

4.TheDistinctionbetweenPureandImpureFood24

5.CleansingafterTakingMeals26

6.TwoBottlesforKeepingWater27

7.MorningInspectionofWatertoClearAwayInsects29

8.ChewingToothWoodintheMorning32

9.AcceptanceofanInvitationtoaFeast34

FascicleTwo

10.TheRequirementsforRaimentandFood53

11.HowtoWeartheRobes70

12.TheRobesandtheFuneralRitesofaBhiksuni75

13.ThePurificationofaSite80

14.TheSummerRetreatoftheFiveGroups82

15.TheCeremonyofConfession83

xi

16. TheUseofSpoonsandChopsticks86

17.SalutationatProperTimes87

18.AnsweringtheCallofNature88

SupplementalRemarks91

FascicleThree

19.RegulationsforOrdination93

20.TheTimesforTakingaBath102

21.TheClothforSittingOn104

22.RulesConcerningSleepingandResting105

23.WalkingUpandDownforGoodHealth107

24.TheJuniorWorshipingtheSenior108

25.BehaviorbetweenTeacherandPupil109

26.ConducttowardsVisitorsandFriends116

27.TheTreatmentofDisease118

28.RulesforTakingMedicine121

29.AvoidanceofEvilDrugs127

30.OnTurningtotheRightandtheObservationofTime129

FascicleFour

31.BathingtheBuddha’sImage135

32.TheCeremonyofChanting138

33.AbsurdWaysofWorshipingtheBuddha’sImage144

34.TheWaysofLearninginIndia145

35.OnKeepingLongHair155

36.DisposalofthePropertyofaDeceasedMonk157

37.UseofthePropertyoftheSangha161

38.TheImproprietyofSelf-Immolation163

39.TheBystandersBecomeGuilty166

40.ThingsNotDonebyVirtuousMonksofOld167

Glossary183

Bibliography187

Index189

AListoftheVolumesoftheBDKEnglishTripitaka(FirstSeries)

Translator’sIntroduction

ARecordo f the Inner LawSentHomefromthe SouthSeas(Nan-hai-ji-gui-nei-fa-zhuan),Taisho No.2125,in fourfascicles,wascomposedbyYijingwhilehewassojourninginSribhoja(Sumatra)onhisreturnjourneyfromIndia.

Yijing(635-713),surnamedZhangbeforebecomingamonk,wasanativeofQi-zhou(presentLi-chengCountyinShandongProvince).Hewasadmittedtothemonkhoodattheageoffour­teen.Whilehe wasstillayouthof eighteen,hecherishedthedesiretotraveltoIndiatostudyBuddhism.Hiswishwasnotfulfilleduntilhewasthirty-sevenyearsold,inthesecondyearofXian-heng(671),duringthereignofEmperorGao-zhongoftheTangdynasty.WhenhewaslivinginretirementduringthesummerseasonatYang-zhouinthatyear,hebecameacquaintedwithFengXiao-quan,theGovernor-designateofGuang-zhou(inthe presentGuangxiZhuangAutonomousRegion),whowasreadytoproceedtotakeuphispostinthesouth.Aftertheconclusionofthesum­merretreat,YijingtraveledwiththenewgovernorasfarasGuang-zhou,where,withthegeneroussupportofthemandarin,hewasabletosailinaPersianshiptothe SouthSeasandreachSribhojaafteravoyageoflessthantwentydays.HavingstayedinSribhojaforsixmonthstostudytheSanskritlanguage,YijingresumedhisjourneyviaMalaya,Kaccha,andtheIslandsoftheNaked(NicobarIslands),andarrivedatTamralipti(theCalcuttaarea)inEastIndiainthesecondmonthofthefourthyearofXian-heng(673).Hestayed thereforanotheryeartocontinuehisstudyofSanskritbeforestartinghispilgrimagetoNalandaandotherholysitesinCentralIndia.

1

Translator’sIntroduction

AfterhavingvisitedsuchsacredplacesasVulturePeaknearRajagrha,MahabodhiMonastery,theoldresidenceofVimalakirtiatVaisall,Kusinagara,andDeerPark,heclimbedoverKukkutapadaMountainandreturnedtoNalandaMonastery,wherehesettleddownandlivedfortenyearstostudy andtrans­lateBuddhisttextsundertheguidanceofRatnasimha,alearnedteacherofthetimewhor*sidedatthemonastery.

Bringing withhimSanskrittextsin morethanfivehundredthousandstanzas,whichwhentranslatedintoChinese wouldamounttoathousandfascicles,hesailed fromTamraliptionhisreturnjourneyandarrivedatSribhoja forthesecondtime inthethirdyearofChui-gong(687).ThistimehestayedtheretillhereturnedtoChinainthefirstyearofZheng-sheng(695).

ItwasduringhissecondsojourninSribhojathatYijingwrotetheRecordinfourfasciclessometimebefore691,inwhichyearhedispatchedaChinesemonknamedDajin,whomhehadmetinSribhoja,totakethemanuscriptoftheRecordbacktoChinato­getherwithhisnewlytranslatedsutrasandsdstrasintenfascicles,andtheBiographiesofEminentMonksWhoWenttotheWestern

RegionsinSearchoftheDharma(Xi-yu-qiu-fa-gao-seng-zhuan)intwo fascicles,as wellasalettertothecourtrequestingthattheemperorbuildaBuddhisttempleinIndia.

His motive inwritingtheRecordwasto providehis fellow monksathomewithinformationaboutthemonasticrulesandmanneroflivingofthemonksinIndiaandtheislandsoftheSouthSeas.Inthecourseof hisnarrationand bywayof comparison,Yijingdid notforgettocriticizethemonksinChinaforthoseoftheirbehaviorswhichwerenotinagreementwiththedisciplinaryrules,particu­larlytherulesof theSarvastivadaSchool.Hisintention wasto makeChinaalandinwhichBuddhismwaspracticedexactlyasinIndia.

Inhisownwordshesaid:“Myreal wishistomaketheShao-shiMountainequaltoVulturePeak,andto puttheDivineLandonaparwiththeCityoftheRoyalHouse(Rajagrha).”

Whathemostobjectedtowasthetraditionofbrandingthescalpofamonkornunatthetimeofordination.Itissaidthatthis

2i

Translator’sIntroduction

practicewasinitiatedbyEmperorWu(r.502-549)oftheLiangdynasty,basedonateachingoftheBrahmajala-sutra(atextonMahayanadisciplinaryrules),whichadvocatedinjuringone’sbody

byburningoff afinger,cauterizingone’sarmsorscalp,orevencommittingsuicideasanexpressionofgratitudetotheBuddha.SuchbehaviorisobviouslycontrarytotheVinayarulesprevalentinIndia.YijingboldlydeprecatedthesehabitspracticedinChinaandbesoughtthemonksathometogiveupsuchimpropercon­ventions.Butit*eemsthathisadmonitionwasnotlistenedto,asnomeasuresweretakentoeliminatethisunfortunatecustomfromthetimethatitwasinitiatedduringthefirsth a lfofthesixthcenturyc.e.until1983,whenitwasabolishedasamarkofordina­tioninallmonasteriesthroughoutChina.

Again,inanotherchapter(ChapterThirty-three),Yijingcen­

suredsomeChinesemonksforexhibitingBuddhaimagesinthehighwaywhileperforming Buddhistceremoniesinordertoattractmoreworshipersandcollectmoremoney.Thiscommercializationof theperformanceofBuddhistceremonieswasnotonlysopopu­laratYijing’stimeastodrawhisattentionbutisstillpracticedinChinawithoutanendinview.

AsatranslatorofSanskrit BuddhisttextsintoChinese,YijinglaidemphasisonthestudyoftheSanskrit language.InChapterThirty-fourhedescribedtheprincipaltextbooksforstudyingSanskritandremarked:“Butthetranslatorsof oldtimesrarelytalkedaboutthegrammaroftheSanskritlanguage.... NowIhope youwillallstudy Sanskrit,sothatwecansparethetransla­torsthetroubleofrepetition....EveninKu-lunandSuli,thepeoplecanreadSanskritscriptures.WhyshouldthepeopleoftheDivineLand,whichisa landof abundance,notprobeintotheoriginallanguageofthescriptures?”

ItistruethatSanskrithasneverbeenandisnotarequiredcourseforChinesestudentmonks.Duetotheirlackof elemen­taryknowledgeofSanskrit,theyoftenmisunderstoodtheoriginalmeaningofChinesetranslations;and thisgives risetounnecessarydisputesandcontroversies.InChinathereisa

3

1

Translator’sIntroduction

proverb:“Forgetthetrapwhenthefishiscaught.”(Deyuwang quart.)PerhapsthatwaswhythenumerousSanskrittextsbroughtbackfromIndiabyXuanzangin645,forwhichabigpagoda, theWildGoosePagoda(Da-yan-ta),wasconstructedatXi’anasastore­house,wereforgottenandnothandeddowntoposterity.

Asasourceof information,Yijing’sRecordcontainsamplema­terialsconcerningmonasticlife,fromthechoosingofateacher,underwhoseguidanceonebecomesamonk,uptothedisposalofthepersonalbelongingsleftbyadeceasedmonk.Itdepictssuch

acompletepictureofthelifeof amonkthatit isindispensableandinvaluableforresearchintotheconditionsofBuddhistmo-nasticisminmedievalIndia.

4

ARECORDOFTHEINNERLAWSENTHOMEFROMTHESOUTHSEAS

by

SramanaYijing

FascicleOne

Foreword

Inthebeginning,whentheGreatChiliocosmwasfirstproduced,itrevealedtheinceptionoftheestablishmentoftheuniverse.When

ahundredkotis(onekotiequalstenmillion)ofthingswerecom­pleted,therewasasyetnoproperorderformenandinanimateobjects.Sincetheworldwashollowandempty,therewasneithersunnormoonmovinginit.Itwasreallyacalmandquietstatewithoutgrieforhappiness,andtherewasnodistinctionbetweentheprinciplesofyin(negativity)andyang(positivity).Thenthecelestialbeingsof theHeavenofPuritydescended,withtheirbodilylightfollowingthem.Astheytookearthlydelicacies,theybecamegreedyandacquiredattachment.Theyateclimbingplantsgrow­ingintheforestandfragrantgrainsofricealternately.Whentheirbodilylightgraduallyfadedaway,thesunandmoonbegan

toappear.Conjugalrelationsandtheaffairsofa*griculturearose,andtherelationshipbetweenrulerandtheruledaswellasbe­tweenfatherandsonwasestablished.Thenthepeoplelookeduptothebluefirmamentaboveandsawthattheskywassublimelyhighwithacolorfulfloatinglight.Whentheylookeddowntotheyellowearth,theybeheldthatwindagitated waterandsolidifieditintoterrafirma.Itissaidthatheavenandearthwerethenclearlydivided.Livinginbetweenwerehumanbeingswhocameintobeingspontaneouslybytheinteractionofpureandimpurevitalforces.Themoldingandcastingfunctionofnegativeandposi­tiveelementswaslikenedtoabigfurnace,andtheproductionofallkindsofthingswascomparedtotheproductionofpotteryfromclay.Allthesewereerroneoussayingsduetolackoflearning.

204c4

7

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

Thenthemountainsstoodhighlikestarsscatteredaboutinthesky,whilesentientbeingsspreadandmultiplied.TheydifferentiatedtheWayintoninety-sixschoolsandclassifiedtruthintotwenty-fivecategories.TheSamkhyaSchoolholdsthatallthingscameintobeingfromoneness,whiletheVaisesikaSchoolassertsthatthefiveformsofexistencearosefromthesixcatego­ries.Somegonakedandhavetheirhairpluckedout,regardingthisastheessential wayofgettingoutoftransmigration.Otherssmeartheirbodieswithashesanddresstheirhairintoaconicaltopknot,clingingtothispracticeasameansof goinguptoheaven.Stillothersthinkthatlifeisspontaneous,orthatconsciousnessdissolveswiththedeathofthebody.Someothersconsidertheworldsoobscureandprofoundthatnoonecanperceiveitses­sence,andbelievethatitissosubtleand incomprehensiblethatnooneknowswhenceitcameout.Otherssaythathumanbeingswillalwaysberebornashumanbeings,orsaythatafterdeaththeybecomeghostsorspirits.Someotherstalkaboutnotknow­ingwhetherabutterflybecomesone’sselforone’sselfturnsintoabutterfly.Somepeoplewerecollectivelybewilderedtoseeawaspwhichturned, whentheycameagain,intoacaterpillar.Thechaosbeforethe universetookshapewascomparedtoanegg,andtheundevelopedstateof ignorancewaslikenedtotheinnocentconditionofaninfant.

Alltheseassertionsweremadeduetonotunderstandingthatbirthistheresultofgreedandpresentexistenceistheresultofpastactions.Willthosewhoholdsuchviewsnottrans­migrateintheseaof suffering,driftingtoandfroandlost inthestreamofconfusion?

ItisourGreatTeacher,the World-honoredSakyamuni,whohimselfpointedoutaflatpath,expoundedthewonderfulprin­ciplesinperson,spokeonthetwelvenidanas(links inthechainofcausality),andacquiredtheeighteenuniquequalitiesofaBuddha,whoistitledtheTeacherofCelestialandHumanBeingsandtheOmniscientOne.Heguidedthefourclassesoflivingbeingsoutofthehouseonfireanddeliveredallbeingsinthethreerealmsfrom

8

FascicleOne

thecityofdarkness.Hecameoutofthestreamofpassionsandlandedontheshoreofnirvana(absoluteextinction).

WhenhefirstattainedfullenlightenmentattheDragonRiver,

allbeingsofthenineclassescherishedthemindofrenouncingthisworld.ThenheshiftedandspreadthelighttoDeerPark,sothatthelivingbeingsofthesixwaysfosteredthemindtotakerefugeinhim.WhenhefirstrotatedtheWheelofDharma,fivepersonsreceivedhisedification.Next,hetalkedonthetraditionofthedisciplinaryrules,andathousandpeopleprostratedthem­selvesbeforehim.ThushispurevoicewasheardinthecityofRajagrha,andthosewho realizedthefruitof saintshipwerecount­less.Inhisfather’scityherequitedhimforhisparentalkindness,andnumerouspeoplemadeuptheirmindtoacquireenlighten­ment.HecommencedhisteachingcareerwithAjnata-Kaundinyaashisfirstdiscipletorealizethetruth,andhislastpupilwasSubhadrainaccordancewithhisoriginaldeterminationtocon­cludehisteachinginthelastperiodof hislife.Heheldandmain­tainedtheDharmaforeighty yearsforthesalvationofthebeingsofthenineabodes.Inhisteachingsnoobscurepointwasleftun­taught,andnobodywasnotaccepted,howeverslow-wittedhemightbe.Forlayfollowersingeneral,heonlyspokebrieflyonthefiveprohibitiveprecepts,butwhenspeakingexclusivelytothemonks,hefullyexpoundedthesevengroupsoftherulesofdisci­pline.Itwasthoughtthatevengraveoffensesofhouseholdersmightbeabsolvedwhenthedisciplinaryruleswereobserved,andthattheminorfaultsofthelivingbeingsmightbeexcusedwhentheVinaya(moralprecepts)becamemanifest.Amonkoncebrokeatwigwithafeelingofhatred,andonaccountofthisactionhewasreborninafamilyofdragons.Onanotheroccasionamonk,showingmercytosmallinsectsinthewater,refusedtodrinkitandthuswasrebornintheabodeofIndraafterhisdeath.Theconsequencesofgoodandevilactionsareasclearasthat.

Thusboththesutras(scriptures)andsastras(commentaries)

weretaught,andmentalconcentrationtogetherwithwisdomwasemployed.Isn’ttheTripitaka(thethreecollectionsofsacred

205a

9

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

writings)thekeyto receivinglivingbeings?Inthepresenceof theGreatTeacher,onealwaysheardhimpreachingthesamedoc­trine,althoughhetaughtitaccordingtovariantcirc*mstancestosavelivingbeings.Histheoriesvanquishedotherpeople’sargu­ments.WhenhefirstindicatedhisdemiseatVaisâlï,Ànanda,whosemindwasdeludedbyMaratheEvilOne,failedtoasktheGreatTeachertolivelonger.AthislastpreachingneartheHiranyavatiRiver,Aniruddharevealedthetruthtoresolvethedoubtsoftheaudience.Itmaybesaidthatthis wastheendof theGreatTeacher’sedificationof livingbeings,andthathehadcom­pletedwhathecoulddowithfullmerit.Hisphysicalformwasnomoretobeseenatthetworivers,tothedespairofbothhumanandheavenlybeings.Hisshadowfadedawayunderthetwinsalatrees,andeventhedragonsandspiritsbecamebroken-hearted.

Besidethesalagrovethetearsofthepeoplemadethegroundmuddy,andnearbythemourners’bloodmadetheplace looklikeagardenof floweringtrees.WiththenirvanaoftheGreatTeacher,theworldbecameemptyandunsubstantial.

ThentherewereassembliesheldbyDharma-propagatingarhats(perfectsaints),thefirstonebeingheldwithfivehundredparticipants,andthesecondonewithsevenhundredparticipa­tors.Thekeepersof theVinayaweremainlydividedintoeighteendifferentschools,andtheTripitakahadvariantversionsaccord­ingtodifferentviewsandtraditions.Themonksofvariousschoolsworetheirundergarmentsdifferentlycut,eitherinstraightlinesorirregularly,andinwearingtheirupperrobes,thefoldsmightbemadebroadornarrow.Whentheyhadto lodgetogether,theymightspendthenighteitherinseparateroomsorseparatedbypartitionsofropesinthesameroom,bothwaysbeingblameless.Atthetimeof receivingfood,the monksmightacceptitwiththeirhands,ormarkaplaceonthegroundtoputthefoodon,bothwaysbeingwithoutfaultandeachbeinghandeddownbyadifferenttradition,whichtraditionsmustnotbemixedtogether.(Yijing’srunningnote:TheSarvâstivâdaSchoolcuttheunder­garmentsinstraightlines,whiletheotherthreeschoolscutthem

10

FascicleOne

inirregularshapes.Thisschool prescribedthatmonksshouldspendthenightinseparaterooms,whiletheSammitiyaSchoolallowedtheirmonkstoseparatetheirbedswithropepartitions.TheSarvastivadaSchoolpermittedmonkstoreceivefoodintotheirhands,buttheMahasamghikaSchoolrequiredthemtomarkaplaceonthegroundtoacceptit.)Thevariousschoolsandsectshavedifferentorigins,andthereareonlyfourprincipalschoolsthathavebeenhandeddownfromthepastintheWesternLand.(Yijin g’srunningnote:(1)TheAryamahasamghika-nikaya,orHolySchooloftheGreatAssemblyofMonks,issubdividedintosevensects,andeachofthethreecollectionsoftheTripitakaofthisschoolconsistsofahundredthousandstanzas,whichwouldconstituteathousandfasciclesiftranslatedintoChinese.(2)TheAryasthavira-nikaya,orSchooloftheHolyElders,issubdividedintothreesects,andthelengthofitsTripitakaisthesameasthatoftheprecedingschool.(3)TheAryamulasarvastivada-nikaya,orHolyFundamentalSchoolof Reality,issubdividedintofoursects,anditsTripitakaisthesameasthatof theprecedingschool.(4)TheAryasammitiya-nikaya,orHolySchoolofCorrectMeasures,issubdividedintofoursects,anditsTripitakaconsistsofthreehundredthousandstanzas.Butthesubdivisionsoftheschoolshavevariedaccordingtodifferenttraditions.Ihavemen­tionedhereeighteensubdivisionsthatexistnow.Asregardsdivi­sionintofiveschools,thisisnotheardofintheWesternLand.)Theschismsandtheirriseandfall,aswellasthenamesofthesubdivisions,arefactuallydifferent,andastheyaredescribedelse­whereIneednotgointodetailhere.

Inallof thefivepartsof India,as wellasthevariousislandsoftheSouthSeas,peoplespeakofthefournikayas,butthenumberoffollowersofthenikayasvariesatdifferentplaces.InMagadhaallfournikayasareinpractice,buttheSarvastivada-nikayaistheonemostflourishing.InLataandSindhu—namesof countriesinWestIndia—threeofthenikayas havefewfollowers,buttheSammitiyahasa largenumberof adherents.InthenorthallmonksfollowtheSarvastivada-nikaya,thoughonemaysometimesmeet

205b

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

withfollowersofthe Mahasamghika-nikaya.Inthesouthall monksfollowtheSthavira-nikaya,whiletheothernikayashavefewfol­lowers.Inthecountriesattheeasternfrontier,allfournikayasarepracticedinvariousways.(Yijing’srunningnote:AlltheplacesgoingeastwardfromNalandafor fivehundredpoststopsare knownastheeasternfrontier.AttheextremeeastthereistheGreatBlackMountain,whichis,Ireckon,thesouthernboundaryofTi­bet.It issaidthatitissouthwestof Si-chuan,fromwhichonemayreachthismountainafterajourneyof alittlemorethanamonth.Furthertothesouthfromhereandclosetotheseacoast,thereisthecountryofSriksetra.Furthertothesoutheastisthecoun­tryofLankasu.FurthertotheeastisthecountryofDvarapati.FurthertotheextremeeastisthecountryofLin-yi.Allthesecountriesgreatlyveneratethetriplegem.Therearemanymenwhoobservetheprecepts,andtheasceticpracticeofalms-beg-gingisthecustomof themonksinthesecountries.IntheWesternLandIhaveseensuchmonks,whoarereallydifferentfrommenofordinarymorality.)

IntheIslandoftheLion,allmonksbelongtotheSthavira-nikaya,whiletheMahasamghika-nikayaisrepulsed.IntheSouthSeastherearemorethantencountrieswhereonlytheMulasarvastivada-nikayaispredominant,thoughonemayocca­sionallyfindsomefollowersoftheSammitiya-nikaya.Recentlyafewadherentsoftheothertwonikayashavealsobeenfoundhere.

(Yijing’srunningnote:Countingfromthewest,therearePo-lu-siIslandandthenMalayuIsland,whichisnowthecountryofSribhoja,andalsoMo-he-xinIsland,He-lingIsland,Da-daIsland,Pen-penIsland,Po-liIsland,Ku-lunIsland,BhojapuraIsland,A-shanIsland,andMo-jia-manIsland.Therearealsosmallislands,of whichI cannotmakeafulllist.)Inall thesecountriesthepeoplefollowBuddhism,butmostlyoftheHinayanaSchool,exceptinMalayuwherethereareafewMahayanabelievers.

Thecircumferenceofsomeofthesecountriesisaboutahun­dredli(oneliequalsone-halfkilometer)orseveralhundredli,oraboutahundredpoststations.Althoughitisdifficulttomeasure

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thesize ofthe greatsea,thosewhoare usedtosailing inmerchantshipsmayknowitbyestimation.AsthepeopleofKu-lunwerethefirsttocometoJ iao-zhouandGuang-zhou,theseplacesweregen­erallycalledthecountryofKun-lun.InthiscountryofKun-lun,thepeoplehavecurlyhairandblackbodies,whiletheinhabitantsintheothercountriesarenotdifferentfromthepeopleoftheDi­vineLandofChina,buttheyaregenerallybarefootedandwearthekambala(awoolenloincloth).ThedetailsarefullydescribedintheRecordoftheSouthSeas.

TravelingduesouthonfootfromHuan-zhouforoverh a lfamonth,orforfiveorsixhightidesifgoingonboardaship,onemayreachBi-jing,andproceedingfurthersouthonearrivesatChampa,thatis,Lin-yi.Inthiscountrythemajorityof themonksbelongtotheSammitlya-nikaya,withonlyafewadherentsof theSarvastivada-nikaya.

Travelingsouthwestforonemonth,onereachesthecountryofBanan,formerlycalledFunan.Inoldtimesthiscountrywasinhabitedbynakedpeoplewhom*ostlyworshipedthedevas.Af­terwardsBuddhismprevailed,butnowawickedkinghascom­pletelyeradicatedit.No monksarefoundthere,whilevariouskindsof hereticslivethere.ThisisthesouthernseaboardofJambudvipa;itisnotanislandinthesea.

InEastChina,however,them ainprinciplesofBuddhismpracticedarethoseoftheDharmaguptaSchool,whileinCen­tralChina theMahasamghika-nikayawasalsofollowedatvari­ousplacesinoldtimes.SouthoftheYangziRiverandoutsidethe[local]mountainrange,theSarvastivada-nikayaflourishedinformertimes.WespeakoftheVinaya[oftheSarvastivada-nikaya]astheVinayaofTenReadingsandthat[oftheDharmagupta-nikaya]astheVinayao fFourDivisions,becausethesenamesaremainlyderivedfromthenumberofsectionsintheVinayatextsof

theseschools.Uponcloseobservationonthedistinctionsbetween205cthefourschoolsandthedifferencesintheirVinayatexts,wesee

thatthegraveoffensesandligh tfaultsaredealtwithquitedifferentlybydifferentschools.Whatispermittedbyoneschool

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

maybedisallowedbyanother.Themonksshouldobservethedis­ciplinaryrulesoftheirrespectiveschools,andshouldnotsubsti­tutetherulesgoverninglightfaultsofotherschoolsforthosedealingwithgraveoffensesoftheirownschool.Theyshouldalsonotdetesttheprohibitiverulesof otherschools,thinkingthatsuchaffairsareallowedbytheirownschool.Otherwise thedistinctionsbetweentheschools willnotbeapparent,andthereasonsforper­missionandprohibitionwill beunclear.Howcanoneandthesamepersonobservethedisciplinaryrulesofallfourschools?Thepar­ableofapieceofcottonskirtandagoldenstaffbrokenintofrag­mentsindicatestherealizationofnirvanaandthatthosewhopracticetheDharmawithoutdiscriminationshouldbehavethem­selvesaccordingtotherulesoftheirrespectiveschools.(Yijing’srunningnote:OnceKingBimbisaradreamedthatapieceof cot­tonclothwastornintoeighteenfragmentsandagoldenstaffbro­kenintoeighteensections.Fearfully,heaskedtheBuddhaaboutit.TheBuddhasaid,“Overahundredyearsaftermynirvana,therewillbeakingnamedAsokarulingoverJambudvipa.Thebhiksus[mendicants]willthensplitintoeighteenschools,butthegateleadingtoemancipationwillbeoneandthesameforthemall.Yourdreamisaprediction.Oking,don’tworryaboutit!”)

AmongthefourschoolsthereisnodefiniteclassificationastowhichonesshouldbeputunderMahayanaand whichonesunderHinayana.IntheregionsofNorthIndiaand theSouthSeas,whatisprevalentispurelyHinayana,whileintheDivineLandof China,the monkskeepthegreatteachingintheirminds.AtotherplacesboththeMahayanaandtheHinayanaarepracticedinamixedway.Th roughanexamin a t ionoftheirpractices,weseenodifferencesintheirdisciplinaryrulesandrestrictions.Bothof themclassifytheVinayarulesintofivesectionsandpracticethefournobletruths.ThosewhoworshipbodhisattvasandreadMahayanascripturesarenamedMahayanists,andthosewhodonotdosoarecalledHinayanists.WhatisknownasMahayanaconsistsofonlytwosub-schools,first,theMadhyamikaandsecond,theYogacara.TheMadhyamikaSchoolholdsthatthingsexistonly

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conventionally;theyareemptyinreality,and their substanceisvoidlikeanillusion.TheYogacaraSchoolassertsthatexternalphenomenado notreallyexist.Whatexistsexistsinternally,ev­erythingbeingmanifestationsofconsciousness.

BothofthesetwoschoolsfollowtheholyteachingsoftheBuddha.Howcanwesaywhichisrightandwhichis wrong,sincebothofthemleadussimilarlytonirvana?Andhowcanwesaywhichistrueandwhichisfalse,asthepurposeof bothschoolsistocutoffourpassionsandsavealllivingbeings?Whyshouldwetrytocausemorecomplicationsandincreaseperplexity?I fwepracticeaccordingtowhattheyteach,weshallallreachtheothershore,andi f weactcontrarytothem,weshallremainsubmergedintheseaofrebirth.IntheWesternLand,bothschoolsarepro­fessedwithout havingabsurdcontradictionsintheirtheories,andsince wehaveno eyeof wisdom,whocanjudgetherightand wrongof it?Weshouldhaveconfidenceinwhathaslongbeenpracticed,andcultivateourselvesaccordingly.Wemustnottakethetroubletodisconnectourselvesfromthem.

ThedifferentschoolsoftheVinayaobservedintheDivineLand

aremutuallyrelated.Lecturersandwritershaveproducednu­merousanddiverseworksontheVinaya,renderingthefivesec­tionsorsevengroupsofdisciplinaryrules,whichhadbeeneasytounderstand,difficulttocomprehend.Expedientwaysconcerningtheviolationandobservanceoftheruleshadbeenobvious,butbecameobscure.Thusone’sintention[toobservetheVinayarules]dissolvesatthemomentwhenthefirstbasketfulofearthis poureddowntobuildamountain,andone’s mindretrogressesafterat­tendingtheinitial lecture.Eventhemosttalented mencanachievetheirlearningoftheVinayaonlywhentheirmustacheshaveturnedgrey;howcanmenofmediumorlittletalentgainanysuc­cessevenwhentheirhair hasbecomewhite?AstheVinayatextsarenaturallyverboseandhavesuperfluousparts,itrequiresalife­timeto readall thecommentaries.Theestablishedmethodofteach­erstransmittingknowledgetopupilsistodiscourseonchaptersandsections,andexplainthemparagraphbyparagraphandword

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

byword;innarratingtheabsolutionof offenses,theyareana­lyzedsentencebysentence.Toestimatetheeffortrequiredforthismethodof study,itisas laboriousasbuildingamountain;butso faras itsadvantagesareconcerned,itis oftenaslustrousasaseapearl.

Thepurposeofwritersistohelpreadersunderstandeasilywhatiswrittenbythem.Howcouldtheyintentionallyuseinex-

206aplicitlanguageandthentryto explainawaytheir absurdity?It islikewhenafloodinundatesaplainandthewatervanishesintodeep wells;athirsty mandying forwantofwatercan by nomeanssavehislife.ButsuchisnotthecasewithexaminationoftheVinayatexts.Forthejudgm entofmajoror minoroffenses,a fewlineswouldbesufficient,andforexplanationsoftheconditionsofcommittingfaults,oneneednottroubleoneselfforevenhalfaday.SuchisthegeneraltendencyoftheBuddhistmonksof IndiaandtheSouthSeas.

AsregardstheDivineLand,whatisprevalentistheteach­ingoftheethicalcodeofrespectingandservingone’ssovereignandparents, payinghonortoandsubmittingtoone’selders,keep­ingmoralintegrityandbeingmodestandagreeable,andtakingonlywhatitisrighteoustotake.Sonsshouldbefilialtotheirparentsand ministersloyaltothemonarch.Theyshouldbepru­dentinconductandleadafrugallife.TheEmperorbestowsgreatcareuponhismillionsofsubjects.Assoonasthedaybreaks,heconsiderstheplightofthedestituteand homelessoneswithpity,whilenoneofhisministersisnotrespectfullyexecutinghisor­dersdayandnightwithsuchgreatcareasoneshowswhenwalk­ingonthinice.Hesometimesopensagreatmeeting,providedwithahundredseats,tospreadtheteachingsofthethreeYanas(Vehicles).Hehasbuiltcaityas(temples)allovertheempire,sothatallmenofinsightturntheirmindtowardsBuddhism,andhe

hasalsoconstructedsamgharamas(monasteries)throughouthisdo­main,sothatthosewhohadgoneastrayturnbacktotherightpath.Thefarmerssingmerrilyintheirfields,andthemerchantschantjoyfullyonboardshiporintheircarts.Sothepeopleofthe

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FascicleOne

countrieswhereco*cksorelephantsarehonoredandrespectedcometopayhomageattheredterraceinfrontoftheThroneHall,andtheinhabitantsoftheregionsof GoldenNeighborsandJadeRidgeproposetopledgeallegianceatthegreenmoss-grownsteps.Carryoutthingsabsolute;thereisnothingmoretobeaddedtothem.(Yijing’srunningnote:Theco*ck-respectersis anameforthecoun­tryofKoreausedbytheIndians,inwhoselanguageitisknownasKukkutesvara,kukkutameaningco*ckand Isvara,respectable.ItissaidinIndiathatco*cksarerespectedasgodsinKoreaandthatthepeoplewearco*cks’feathersbywayofornament.Indiaisknownasacountrywhereelephantsare honoredbecausethekingsofthatcountrytreatthemwithgreathonor.ThisissoinallfivepartsofIndia.)

Asregardsthehomelessmonks,theylectureonthedisciplin­aryrules,withtheirdisciplesstudyingearnestlyandrespectfullylearningtheultimategistsfromtheteachers.Someofthemretiretoliveinadeepandsecludedvalleyawayfromworldlyentangle­ments.Theywash theirmouthswiththewaterflowingdownfromthecliffsbeforetheypracticemeditation,orsitinajunglewheretheyfindspiritualsustenance.TheypracticetheWayduringallsix periodsof thedayand night;bydoingthisthey repaythekind­nessextendedtothembythoseofpurefaith.Theygointomentalconcentrationtwiceduringthenight;thisisworthyoftherespectofgodsandmen.SincesuchactionsareinperfectconcordancewiththescripturesandtheVinayarules,whatfaultcanonefindwiththem?

Buterrorsandmistakeshavecreptinduringthecourseoftransmission,sothatthedisciplinaryruleshavebecomediscrep­ant.Long-standingirregularformsofconductmaybecomeregu­larpracticeswhicharecontraryto moral principles.I havecarefullywrittenthisworkentitledARecordo ftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeasinfortychapters,dividedintofourfascicles,accordingtotheholyteachingsandtheessentialrulesandregu­lationscurrentlyineffect.Iamalsosendingbackanotherbookofmine,TheMemoirsofEminentMonksWhoVisitedtheWestern

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

RegionsinSearchoftheLawduringtheGreatTangDynasty,intwofascicles,togetherwithsomeothermiscellaneousscripturesandcommentarieswhichIhavecopied.I wishthatthevenerablemonksathomewillcherishthe mindofpropagatingtheDharmawithout harboringanyprejudiceandactwithgooddeliberationinaccordancewithwhattheBuddhahastaught,andthattheywill

notignoretheDharmabecauseitisconveyedbyamanofnosignificance.

However,thetheoriesandconceptsof thescripturesandcom­mentaries handeddownfromancienttimestothepresentdayarewellinterconnectedwiththepracticeofdhyana(meditation).Butas I amfarawayfromyou,it is difficult formetoimpartto youthesubtletechniqueofmentalconcentrationto keepthemind intran­quility.Ican,nevertheless,makearoughstatementoftheprac­ticesprescribedintheVinayatextsandsubmitittoyouinadvance.

TherulesandregulationsthatIhaveparticularizedbelowhadbeencheckedbymyteachersbeforeIcommittedthemtowriting

206binmyRecord.Evenif Ishoulddiewiththesettingsun,I willstilldomybesttom ylastmoment,sothatwhentheflameofthiscandlegoesoutatdawn,ahundredlampsmaycontinuetogivelight.ByreadingthisRecord,youmayvisitthefivepartsofIndiawithafewstepswithouttakingthetroubletomoveevenonefoot,andbeforethelapseof evenashortspanof time,youwillbeabletoshedlightuponthedarkpathforathousandyearstocome.IhopethatyouwillcheckandstudytheTripitakacarefully,soastoarousetheseaofDharmatoexpungethefourgrievousoffenses,andthatwiththefivesectionsoftheVinayarules,whichareasclearasamirror,youwillsailtheboatofwisdomtosavethosewhoaresubmergedintheriverofsixdesires.AlthoughIhavereceivedpersonalinstructionsfrommyteachersandwhatIhavelearneddoesnotarisefrommyownoriginality,IamafraidthatImayintheendbesneeredatbymenendowedwiththeeyeofwisdom.ThisisallIhavetosay.

AllthetopicsdiscussedherearediscussedaccordingtotheMulasarvastivadaSchool;thetraditionsofotherschoolsshould

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FascicleOne

notbeintermingledwithdiscussionsofthiswork.Themattersmentionedherearegenerallythesameasthoserelatedinthe

Dasasvadhyaya-vinaya(theVinayaofTenReadings)oftheSarvastivadaSchool,whichhasthreesub-sects,namely,(1)theDharmagupta,(2)theMahisasaka,and(3)theKasyapiya.These

sub-sectsarenotprevalentinthefivepartsofIndia,exceptinUdyana,Kucha,andKustana,where therearesomeadherentsofthesesub-sectsmixedwiththefollowersofotherschools.YettheDasasvadhyaya-vinayadoesnotbelongtotheMulasarvastivadaSchool.

206c

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

1.NoDegradationIsCausedbyaBreachoftheSummerRetreat

Thosebhiksuswhohavebrokenawayfromthesummerretreataremerelydisqualifiedfromreceivingthetenbenefitstherefrom;itisunjustifiabletodegradethemfromtheiroriginalpositionofseniorityinthecommunityofmonks.Howisittolerablethatamonkwhousedtoreceivehomagefromothersatformertimesshouldnowpayrespectinreverseordertohisjuniors?Habitualformsofconductlikethismaybecomecustomarybutareground­lesspractices.Theacceptanceof aspecialinvitationtoamonktogooutduringthesummerretreatisasseriousanoffenseastoearna livingbytheft.Therefore,weshouldmakeacarefulexami­nationofthismatterandmustnotneglectit.Thepriorityofamonk’spositionshouldbedeterminedbythedateofhisordina­tion.Evenifheshouldfailtoobservethesummerretreatprop­erly,hemustnotbedegradedinposition,becausenosuchprescriptionisfoundintheholyteachings.Whowasthepersonthatatsomeformertimeinitiatedthispractice?

2.BehaviortowardstheHonoredOnes

Accordingto theteachingsof theBuddha,itisdecorous foramonktogobarefootinthepresenceof aholystatueoruponapproach­ing his honored teachers,except i f he is ill;wearingshoes or otherfootgearisnotallowedundersuchcirc*mstances.Hemustkeephisrightshoulderbareandcoverhisleftarmwithhisrobe,with­outwearingakerchieforaturban.Suchistheregularway,but

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

hemaybeallowedtodootherwisewithoutcommittinganyfaultwhenheiswalkinginotherplaces.Ifheisinacoldcountry,heispermittedtoputonshortbootsorshoessuitabletothelocalcli­mate.Astheclimatemaybehotorcoldindifferentplacesandregions,manyoftherulesareadaptableaccordingtotheholyteachings.Itisreasonablethatamonkisallowedtowearwarmclothestemporarilyduringthemonthsofseverewintertokeepthebodyingoodhealth.Butduringthespringandsummersea­sons,amonkmustactaccordingtotheregulationsof theVinaya.OneshouldnotcircumambulateaBuddha’stopewhilewearingshoes;thiswasclearlytaughtattheverybeginning.Thosewhowearlacedbootsmustnotentertemples;thishasbeendeclaredlongago.Buttherearepeoplewhowillfullyviolatethisrule.Theyarerudelydisregardingthegoldenwords.

3.SittingonSmallChairsatMealtimes

Themonksof Indiainthewestmustwashtheirhandsandfeetbeforetakingmeals,andtheyeachsitonasmallchairwhichisaboutsevenincheshighandonlyafootsquare.Theseat,beingwovenoutofrattancaneandhavingroundlegs,islighttocarry.Forjuniororyoungermonks,smallpiecesofwoodthesizeofachoppingblockmayserveasseats.Theyplacetheirfeetontheground,andplatesandjarsareputinfrontofthem.Thegroundissmearedwithcow’sdungbywayof purification,withfreshleavesspreadoverit.Thechairsarearrangedatintervalsofonecubit,sothatthemonkssittingonthemdonottoucheachother.

Ihaveneverseenmonks[inIndia]sittingcross-leggedonbigcouchestotakemeals.Accordingto theholyregulations,thelengthof acouchmeasureseightfingersof theBuddha.AstheBuddha’sfingersarethreetimeslongerthanthoseof anordinary man,thelengthofacouchcomestotwenty-fourfingersofanordinaryman,

correspondingtooneandahalftimestheChinesehuruler(acer­emonialtabletusedbyofficialsatcourt).Inthemonasteriesof

207aChinaintheeast,theheightofacouchexceedstwofeet,butsuch

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FascicleOne

a couchwasoriginally unfitforamonkto siton,as itis anoffenseforamonkto sitonahighcouch.Atpresent,manymonksdo sitonhighcouches,andwhatcanwedoaboutit?Thosewhoincurblameshouldmakeastudyoftheprescribedmeasurementofcouches.But intheLing-yanand Si-chanMonasteries,thecouchestheyuseareonefoothigh.Therewasareasonforthevirtuouspeopleofancienttimestomakethisrule.Oneshouldknowthatsittingcross-leggedsidebysidewithkneesputinalineis nottherightmannerformonkstotakemeals.

Ihaveheardthatinthebeginning,whenBuddhismwasin­

troducedintoChina,allmonkssatsquattingontheirheelsatmealtimes.ThiswassouptotheJindynasty(265 -419),whenthismannerofsittingtotake mealscametobeconsiderederro­neous.Sincethenthemonkshavesatcross-leggedtotakemeals.Sevenhundredyearshavepassedsincetheholyteach­ingsspreadtoChinaintheeast.Tendynastieshavegonebythroughthisperiod,andeachdynastyhaditsownprominentmonks.IndianmonksvisitedChinaoneafteranother,andChi­nesemonkslineduptoreceiveinstructionfromthem.SomeChinesemonksalsowentpersonallytoIndiainthewestandwit­nessedwhatwasrightandwhatwaswrong.Whentheyreturnedhome,theytoldtheirfellowmonkswhattheyhadseenabroad,butwhowouldlistentothem?

It is said ina scripture,“Aftertakingfood,they washedtheirfeet. ”Itisclearthatthemonkswerenotsittingcross-leggedoncouchestotaketheirmeal;theywashedtheirfeetbecausefoodremnantsweredroppedonthegroundneartheirfeet.Fromthiswemayknowthatthe monkssatwiththeirfeetonthe groundwhileeating.DisciplesoftheBuddhashould followtheexampleoftheBuddha.Evenif itishardforthemtokeeptherules,theymustnotderidethem.

Ifamonkspreadsakerchiefandsitsonitwithhislegscrossed

squarely,itisdifficultforhimto keephimselfclean,as itis impos­sible toavoidgettingstainedinthispostureby foodremnantsandspills.Moreover,tocollectwhathasbeenleftoverfromameal

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

doesnotatallconformwithIndiancustom.Tocollecttheleft­overswouldpollutetheplatesusedbythemonks;theservantstouchonlycleanandpuretableware.Thisisaninanetraditionwhichisineffectiveforthepreservationofpurity.Pleasemakeagoodexaminationofthesepointsandseewhatarethemeritsanddemerits.

4.TheDistinctionbetweenPureand

ImpureFood

ItiscustomaryforbothmonksandlaypeopleofIndiainthewesttodifferentiatebetweencleananduncleanfood.Ifonlyamouth­fuloffoodhasbeeneaten,itallbecomesdefiled,andeventhereceptacleisunfitforreuseandmustbeputasidetobediscardedtogetherwithotherusedcontainersafterthemealisover.Allleftoverfoodisgiventothosewhoaresuitedtoeatit.Tocollectand preserveitforfurtheruseisneverallowed.Allpeopleof highorlowrankkeepthiscustom,whichisaconventionobservednotonlybymenbutalsobydeities.

Therefore,itissaidinseveral commentaries:“Itisconsidereddisdainfulnottochewawillowtwig[tocleansetheteeth],nottowashone’sselfafterdefecation,andnottodistinguishbetweenpureandimpurefood. ”Howcanweusedefiledutensilstoconveyfoodonceagain,collectandpreserveleftoversinthekitchen,putsurpluscookedricebackinthepot,returntheremainingsouptothethermalvessel,eatthenextmorningwhatbrothandveg­etablesareleftovernight,andkeepcakesandfruitstobeeatenthedayaftertomorrow?ThosewhoobservetheVinayarulesknowwellaboutthisdistinction,butthosewhoareundisciplinedmakenodistinctionbetweenthemandregardthemasidentical.

Ontheoccasionofreceivingofferingsoffood,oratothertimeswhenanordinarymealistaken,amonkisconsidereddefiledassoonashehasputfoodintohismouth,andhemustnottouchothers,nortakeanotherdishofcleanfood,unlesshehasrinsed

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FascicleOne

hismouthwithpurewater.Ifhetouchesanotherpersonbefore

washinghismouth,thepersonhehastouchedbecomesdefiled207b

too,andthatpersonmustwashhimself.Ifhehastouchedadog,hemustalsowashhimself.

Whenofferingsacrificialfoodtodeities,thepersonwhoper­

formstheritesshouldstandtooneside.Aftertheceremonyisover,heshouldwashhishandsandrinsehismouth,andalso washthesacrificialutensils.Thenhemaytouchthecookingpansandpots.Otherwisehissupplicationandincantationwillbeinefficacious,andevenifsacrificialfoodisoffered,thedeitieswillnotacceptit.Therefore,wemaysaythat whateverofferingsarepreparedeitherforpresentingtothetriplegem,orforgivingtothespirits,orevenforordinarymeals,mustbepureandclean.Ifamonkhasnotwashedhimselfcleanandrinsedhismouth,andhasnotwashedafterrelievingnature,heisunfittopreparefood.Asthecommonsayinggoes:“Onlypurefoodmaybeofferedasasacrificetothedeceased.Nailsmustbeclippedcleanlyrighttotheflesh[whenmakingsuchanoffering].Whetheritisforthosewhohaveabandonedth ismundaneworld,orforsuchpeopleasConfuciusandhisdiscipleYanHui,foodofferedasasacrificemustbepureandclean,andleftoversareneverusedasofferingstothedeceased.”Forthepreparationof foodasanoffering,oras aregu­larmealforthemonks,asuperintendentisneededtooverseetheprocess.Whilewaitingforthe preparation,i f amonkoralaymanfearsthathemightbedelayed beyondtheprescribedtimefortak­ingameal,hemaytakeaportionoffoodandeatit*eparatelybeforethemealisproperlyserved.Thisispermittedbytheteach­ingsoftheBuddhaanditisfaultless.

Ihaverecentlyseenthatunderthesupervision ofmonksandnuns,mealsare oftenserved after noontime. In thiswaytheycom­mittedafaultinsteadofgainingbliss;onemustnotdoso.Thefundamentaldifferencebetweenthefivepartsof Indiaandothercountriesisthisdistinctionbetweenpurityandimpurity.OncesomemessengersoftheHutribeinthenorth[of China]cametoIndiainthewest,andtheywerelaughedatbythelocalpeople,

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

becausetheydidnotwashthemselvesafteransweringthecallofnature,keptleftoversinapot,satsocloselytogetherastotoucheachotheratmealtimes,didnotkeepbackfrompigsanddogs,anddidnotchewwillowtwigstocleansetheirteeth.Thustheyincurredridiculeandcensure.Therefore,Dharmapractitionersshouldbeextremelymindfulofthesemattersandmustnotthinkofthemastrivialities.ButinChinanodistinctionwasevermadebetweenpureandimpurefoodsincetheremotepast.Althoughthemonkshaveheardaboutit,theyneverhaveputtherulesintopractice,anduntilIspeaktotheminperson,theywillnotgetarealunderstandingofit.

5.CleansingafterTakingMeals

Afterhavingtakenameal,amonkmustwashhishands,thencleanandchewawillowtwigtocleanse,brush,andpickhisteeth,aswellasscrapehistongue,soastomakethemallclean.Hemaydosoeitherwithavesseltocontaintheusedwater,oratsomesecludedplace,orovertheopeningof adrain,orneartheflightofstepsleadingtoahouse.Hemayholdthewaterja rhimself,orasksomeonetoprovidewaterforhim.Ifsalivaremainsinhismouth,heisconsiderednottohaveobservedthefast.Afterthat,heshouldusebeandregs,orsometimesmudmadeofearthmixedwithwater,towipehislipstoclearaway thesmellof grease.Af­terthat,heshouldpourthewaterfromacleanja rintoaconch-shellcup,whichisplacedeitheronapieceoffreshleaforinthehand.Boththevesselandthehandmustbecleanedwiththreekindsof dregs,i.e.,beandregs,dryearth,andcow’sdung,inordertowashawaythegrease.Orhemaypourthewaterfromacleanjarintohismouthatsomesecludedplace,butifheisatanopen

207cplace,heisforbiddentodo so bytheVinayarules.Justgargletwoorthreetimes;themouthwill bewashedclean.Before doing so amonkis notallowed to swallowsaliva,as it is notonly a breachofetiquettebutalsoafaultybehavior.Beforethemouthhasbeen

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FascicleOne

rinsedagainwithpurewater,thesalivamustbespatout.I fhedidnotdosoafternoontime,hewouldbeconsideredtohavevio­latedtherulenottoeatatirregulartimes.Peopleseldomknowaboutthispoint,andeveni ftheyknowthisrule,itisnoteasyforthemtokeepit.Fromthispointof view,wemaysaythateventheuseofbeandregsorashwatercanhardlykeepusentirelyfreefromfault,asfoodparticlesmaystillremainbetweentheteethandgreasestillstickonthetongue.

Thewiseonesshouldseeintoandbemindfulaboutthesepoints.Itisnotallowedforamonktopasshistimegossipingandtalkingafterthemealisproperlyover,norishepermittednottokeepajarfullofpurewaterandnottochewthetooth-cleaningtwig,havinganuncleanmouthforthewholemorningandincur­ringblamethroughoutthenight.Ifonelivesinthiswaytilltheendoflife,itwouldbeadisasterindeed!Toaskadiscipletoholdthejarandpouroutthepurewaterforwashingisalsoinconfor­mitywiththerules.

6.TwoBottlesforKeepingWater

Waterisuseddifferentlyforpureandimpurepurposes,anditiskeptseparatelyintwobottles.Earthenwareorporcelainbottlesareusedforkeepingwaterforpurepurposes,andcopperorironones,forimpurepurposes.Thepurewateriskeptfordrinkingintheafternoon,while theimpurewaterisneededforwashingaftergoingtothelatrine.Thepurewaterbottlemustbeheldwiththecleanhandandbestored in a clean place,andthebottlecontainingwaterforimpurepurposesshouldbegraspedwiththe uncleanhandandbeputawayatsomeuncleanplace.Onlythewatercontainedina cleanbottle,or insomenewandcleanvessel,is fitfordrinkinginthe afternoon,whilethewatercon­tainedinothervesselsiscalled“tim elyw ater,”whichcanbedrunkwithoutfaultatnoontimeorbeforenoon,butitisfaultytodrinkitintheafternoon.

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Inmakingawaterbottle,theremustbealidtocovertheoutlet,whichisabouttwofinger-widthshigh,andonthetopisasmallhole,of asizethatwouldallowacopperchopsticktobeputin.Onemaydrinkthewaterfromthisspout.Atthesideofthebottle,thereisanotherroundholeaslargeasacoinwithamouthprojectingtwofinger-widthshigh.Thebottleisreplenishedthroughthishole.Itmaycontaintwoorthreelitersofwater.Bottlesofsmallersizearenotused.I fonefearsthatinsectsanddustmayenterthebottlethroughthesetwoapertures,onemaycoverthemup,orclosethemwithstoppersmadeofbamboo,wood,linen,orleaves.

TheIndianmonksmaketheirwaterbottlesafterthisfashion.Atthetime oftakingwater, the inside of the bottlemustbe washedcleanandfreeofanydustorfilthbeforetakinginfreshwater.Howcanwetakewater withoutregardingwhetheritispureornot,simplykeepingitinasmallcopper ju gandpouringitoutwiththelidcoveringthemouth,sothatthewaterspillsandsplashes?Itis[then]unfitforuse,becauseitishardtoknowwhetherthewaterkeptin[the ju g]ispureornot,as itmaybedirtyandsmelly inside,notsuitableforkeepingwateratall. More­over,theamount—oneliterandtwodeciliters—ofwatercontainedinitisnotsufficientfordoinganything.

Formakingabagforthebottle,apieceof clothabouttwo feetlongandonefootwidemaybeused.Foldtheclothtomakethetwoendsmeetandsewtheedgestogether.Stringsaboutthelengthofonespanareattachedtotheuppercornersforfasteningtheopeningofthebag.Thebagishungonthemonk’sshoulderwithabottleinsideit.Whenamonkisgoingroundbeggingforfood,the

208abag forhisalmsbowl isalsomadeinthesamefashion.Itshouldcoverthemouthof the bowl to keepdust fromenteringit.Asthebottomof thebagismadeinapointedshape,thebowldoesnotturnaboutinit.Butthebag forstoringthebowl is differentfromthatforthebottle, as is described elsewhere.Whenamonkistrav­eling,hecarrieshisbottle,almsbowl,personalrobes,andotherarticlesseparatelyonhisshoulders,and,fullycoveredwithhis

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kasaya(religiousrobe),hegoesawaywithanumbrellainhishand.ThesearethemannersofBuddhistmonks.

Ifhehasafreehand,hemaycarryabottleforuncleanpur­posesandabagcontaininghisleathershoes,andholdastaffwithtinringsobliquelyunderhisarm,whileproceedingorstoppingonthewaycomposedly,justasisdescribedintheSutraontheParable

oftheCrowandtheMoon.

Attheseasonofworshipingthecaityas,monksflockedfromthefourquarterstoRajagrha,thebodhitree,VulturePeak,DeerPark,theplaceofthesalatreeswhichonceburstintobloomwithwhiteblossomsresemblingaflockofcranes,andthedesolateKukkutapadaMountain.EverydayIsawthousandsofmonksat­tiredintheabove-mentionedstyle.Asregardsthelearnedmonks

ofgreatvirtueofNalandaMonastery,theyrodeinpalanquins,butneveronhorseback,andthemonksofMaharajaMonasterydidthesame.Alltheirrequisitearticles werecarriedforthembyotherpersonsorbygrooms.SuchistheruleofthemonksofIndiainthewest.

7.MorningInspectionofWatertoClear

AwayInsects

Watermustbeinspectedeverymorning.Aswatercomesfromdifferentsources,fromabottle,awell,apond,orariver,itisnotinspectedaccordingtooneuniformstandard.Atdawn,bottlewa­terisfirstexaminedbypouringoutahandfulof itfromacleanwhitecoppercup,acopperdish,aconch-shellcup,oralacquervessel,ontoapieceofbrick.Awoodeninstrumentmayalsobemadeforthespecialpurposeofexaminingwater.Withone’smouthcoveredbyone’shand,oneshouldobservethewaterforagoodwhile.Onemayalsoobservethewaterinabasinorapot.Eveninsectsastinyasahair-pointmustbetreatedmindfully.If anyinsecthasbeenfound,thewatershouldbereturnedtothebottle,whichshouldbewashedagainandagainuntilnoinsectisleftinit.

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I fthereisapondorariver,takethebottlethereandpourthewaterwiththeinsectsintoit,andthenrefillthebottlewithfilteredfreshwater.Ifthereis only a well,strainthewaterin theusualway. Inexamining thewaterof a well, one should first drawsomewaterfromthe well,getacupfulof itfromthepailwithacoppercup,andthen examineitasstatedabove.Ifthereisnoinsectinit,thewatercanbeusedthroughoutthenight,andifthereisanyinsect,strain thewaterasmentionedbefore.Asre­gardsthe inspection ofwaterof a pond ora river, it isexplainedindetailintheVinaya.

Forthefiltrationofwater,theIndiansinthewestusethebestwhitekapokcloth,butinChinafinesilkmaybeused.Thesilkshouldbestarchedwithricegruelorslightlyboiledinwater.Take

apieceofboiledsilk,fourhufeetlong.Holdtheedgestopullitsidewards,and thenputthetwoendstogetherandsewthemupintotheshapeofasieve.Lacesareattachedtothetwocorners,andloopstobothsides.Astickisputacrossthesilkinthemiddletostretchittoonefootandsixincheswide.Thetwoendsofthestrainerarefastenedtopostsanda basinisplacedunderit.Whenwaterispouredintoitfromapot,thebottomofthepotmustbe

208binsidethestrainer.Otherwisetheinsectsmightdropwiththe

watertothe ground,orintothebasin,where theywouldbeboundto bekilled.When waterhasju stbeenpoured intothestrainer,holditandsee.I fthereisanyinsect,thestrainershouldbechanged.I fitiscleanasusual,itmaybeusedagain.Whensufficientwaterhasbeenpouredintoit,thestrainermaybeturned

insideout.Twopersons,eachholdingoneend,turnoutthestrainerintoalife-preservingvessel,pourwateroveritthreetimes,andthenrinseitfromoutside.Waterisputinto itonceagaintomakeanotherexamination.Ifnoinsectisfound,thestrainermaybestoredawayatwill.

Whenthis[filtered]waterhasbeenkeptovernight,itmustbereexamined.It issaid intheVinayathattheuseofthewater thathasbeenkeptovernightwithoutbeingreexaminedinthemorn­ingincursguilt,whetheritdoesordoesnothaveinsects.

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Therearemanydifferentwaysof protectinglifewhiledrawingwater.Thestrainer mentionedabove isadequateforuseata well.Atariverorapond,onemayfixawoodenbowlanduseadoublebottleasatemporarymakeshiftforastrainer.Duringthesixthandseventhmonthsoftheyear,theinsectsaresmalleranddifferentfromwhattheyareatothertimes,andtheycanpen­etratetenlayersofrawsilk.Thosewhor*joiceinprotectinglifeshouldbemindfultosparethem.Anearthenwarebasinmaybemadeforthepurpose,butthesilkstrainerisusefulandsimpletomake.Inthemonasteriesof Indiainthewest,thebasinismostlymadeofcopper.AsthisisalsodoneinaccordancewiththeruleslaiddownbytheBuddha,onemustnotdisdainit.

Thelife-preservingvesselisasmallwaterpotwithanopen

mouthasbigasthepotit*elf.Therearetwonosesatthesidesnearthebottom,andstringsarefastenedtothem.Whenithasbeenputintothewater,pullthestringstoturnitupsidedownandplungeitintothewateroverandoveragainbeforeitispulledout.

Ifastrainerisforcommonuseinamonastery,itisunbefittingonprincipleforafullyordainedmonktotouchit,norshouldhetakethe“timelywater”keptin hischamber.Hemaydrinkitonlywhenitisbroughttohimbyamonknotfullyordained.Whendrinkingwateratirregulartimes,onemustuseapurestrainer,apurebottle,andapurecup,andthenonemaydrinkit.Thepres­ervationof lifeisadisciplinaryrulepertainingtonaturalmoral­ity.Amongtherulesofprohibition,takinglifeisamajorviolation,anditisattheheadofthetenevildeeds.Thisshouldbynomeansbeignoredorslighted.

Thestrainer,beingoneofthesixrequisitesofamonk,isan

indispensablearticleforhimtopossess.Withoutastrainer,oneshouldnottravelevenforthreeorfiveli.Ifamonkisawarethatstrainersarenotusedinamonastery,itisunbefittingforhim

topartakeof ameal there.Onewouldratherdieofthirst[thandrinkunfilteredwater]onalongjourney,andthisissufficienttobea goodexampleforus.Howcan we useourdailywater with­outinspectingit?

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Althoughsomemonksdousestrainers,theylettheinsects

dieinsidethem.Eveniftheyintendtosavelife,theyseldomknow

therulesfordoingit.They overturnthestrainersoverthemouthofawell,notknowingtousealife-preserver.Oncetheinsectsreachthewaterinthewell,theyarekilledwithoutdoubt.Some­timesthemonksmakeasmall,roundstraineroutof raw,rough,andthinsilk,capableofreceivingonlytwelvedecilitersofwater.Theydonotlookforinsectsinthe strainer, butsimplyhangitupbesidetheiralmsbowltoletpeopleseeand knowthatitisthere.Theyhavenomindtoprotectlife,andtheycommitfaultsevery­day.Theyactinthismanner,whichishandeddownfromteachertodisciple,thinkingthattheyaretransmittingtheDharma!What

a pity,andhowregretfulit is indeed!Everybodyshould keephisownvesselforinspectionofwater,andlife-preserversshouldbeprovidedatallplaces.

8.ChewingToothWoodintheMorning

208cEverydayinthemorning,amonkmustchewapieceoftoothwoodtobrushhisteethandscrapehistongue,andthismustbedoneintheproperway.Onlyafteronehaswashedone’s handsandmouthmayonemakesalutations.Otherwiseboththesaluterandthesalutedareatfault.InSanskritthetoothwoodisknown

asthedantakastha—dantameaningtooth,andkastha,apieceofwood.Itistwelvefinger-widthsinlength.Theshortestis notlessthaneightfinger-widthslong,resemblingthelittlefingerinsize.

Chewoneendofthewoodwellforalongwhileandthenbrushtheteethwithit.Ifonehastogonearasuperiorperson[whilechew­ingatoothwood],oneshouldcoverthemouthwiththelefthand.Afterhavingusedthewoodforbrushingtheteeth,splitandbendittoscrapethetongue.Onemayalsousecopperorirontomakeatongue-scraper.Athinflatpieceofbambooorwood,thesizeofthesurfaceof thelittlefingerandsharpenedatoneend,maybeusedasatoothpicktocleanbrokenteeth.Whenthewoodisbentto

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scrapethetongue,takecarenottohurtit.Afterhavingbeenused,thewoodmaybewashedcleananddiscardedinsomesecludedplace.Whendiscardingthetoothwood,orspittingoutwaterorsaliva,onemustsnapone’sfingersthreetimes,orcoughmorethantwice.Otherwiseitwouldbeafaulttodiscardthem.Oronemaybreakupalargepieceof woodorcutaslenderbranchintoshortpiecestomaketoothwood.Nearamountainoravillage,oneshouldgiveprioritytotheuseofthebranchesofquercus,bine,andampelopsis,whileontheplains,onemaycollectinad­vancebranchesofmulberry,peach,locusttree,andwillowatwill,andkeeptheminstore,sothattheywillnotrunshort.Freshtwigsshouldbeofferedtoothers,whiledryonesmayberetainedforone’sownuse.Theyoungermonksmaytakethetwigsandchewthematwill,buttheeldershavetostrikeoneendofthetwigwithahammertomakeitsoft.

Twigsofabitter,astringent,orpungenttaste,theendofwhich

maybecomecotton-likeafterbeingchewed,arebestforusingastoothwood.Theroughrootofburweedisthemostexcellentforthispurpose.(Yijing’srunningnote:Thatistherootofxanthium.Cutit*roottwoinchesundertheground.)Ithardenstheteethandmakes themouthgood-smelling,andalsohelpsthedigestionandcuresheartdisease.Afterusingthisrootforh a lfamonth,foulbreathwilldisappear,and toothacheordentaldiseasecanbehealedafterthirtydays.Onemustchewthetoothwoodwellandwipeone’steethclean.Letallthesalivaandoozingbloodcomeoutof themouth,andthenrinseitcleanwithalargequantityofwater.Suchisthewayofcleansingthemouth.

Afterthat,ifonecantakeinaspoonfulofwaterthroughthe

nose,thatwouldbepracticingNagarjuna’sartof longevity.I f oneisnotaccustomedtotakinginwaterthroughone’snose,todrinkwaterisalsogood.Whenthismethodisusedforalongtime,onewillgetlesssickness.Dentalcalculusaccumulatesattherootoftheteethandishardenedthroughthepassageof time;itshouldbecompletelyscrapedoff.Whenthemouthisgargledclean,theteethwillnotdecayanymoretilltheendofone’slife.Toothache

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isalmostunknowninIndiabecausethepeopletherechewtoothwood.

Wemustnotmistakethetoothwoodforwillowtwigs.Inthewholecountryof India,thewillowisscarcelyseen.Althoughthetranslatorsusedthisname,thewoodfortheBuddha’stoothwoodwasnotactuallyfromthewillowtree.Ihaveseenitwithmyown

209aeyesatNalandaMonastery.Iamnottryingtoconvinceothersaboutthismatter,butmyreadersneednottakethetroubletodoubtit.EvenintheSanskrittextoftheNirvanaSutra,thereisthesaying:“Atthetimeofchewingtoothwood............”

Somemonks[inChina]usefiveorsixsmallwillowtwigsandchewthemallintheirmouths,notknowinghowtorinseoutthedregs.Someofthemswallowthejuice,thinkingthatitwillcuretheirailments.Theytrytobeclean,butcontrarily theybecomefilthy,andthoughtheyhopetogetridof disease,theyincurmoreseriousillness.Theymaybeunawareofthisfact,andtheyareoutofthelimitsof ourdiscussion.Accordingtothecustomofthefivepartsof India,toothwoodisregularlychewed,andevenachildofthreeistaughthowtodoit.Boththeholyteachings of the Buddhaandthesecularcustomofthepeopleadvocatethisbeneficialhabit.

Ihaveexplainedthemeritoriousanddemeritorious waysofchew­ingtoothwood,anditisuptomy readertodecideathisowndiscretionwhetherheshouldpracticeorrejectthiscustom.

9.AcceptanceofanInvitationtoaFeast

Concerninghowmonksgo toattenda feast in Indiaandthe othercountriesofthe SouthSeas,Ishallgiveabriefdescriptionoftheceremony.

InIndia,thedonorcomesbeforehandto the monks,andafterpaying homagetothem,heinvitesthemtoattendthefeast.Onthe festival day, he comes to inform them, “It is time [for the feast].”Utensilsandseatsforthemonksarepreparedaccordingtocir­c*mstances.Theymayeitherusetheirownvessels,carriedby

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monasticservantsforthem,orusethecleanarticlesprovidedby the donor.The utensils are madesolely of copper, whichmustberubbed cleanwithfineashes.Each monksits inasmallchair,placedatsuchadistancethatonepersondoesnottouchanother.ThestructureofthechairshasalreadybeendescribedinChapterThree.

Earthenwarevesselsthathavenotbeenusedbeforemaybeusedonlyoncewithoutfault.Oncetheyhavebeenused,theyarethrownawayintoapitorditch,becausedefiled vesselsshouldnotbecollectedforfurtheruse.Thatiswhyinthe westerncountryofIndia,hugeheapsofusedvesselsarepileduphighatplacesbe­sidetheroadwherealmsoffoodhavebeengiven,andnoneofthemis to beusedagain.Butearthenwareof goodquality,suchasthatproducedatXiangyang,maybecollectedafterhavingbeenused,asoncetheyarediscardedthey maybewashedcleanbywayofpurification.InthefivepartsofIndia,therewereformerlynoporcelainandlacquerworks.Porcelainvessels,whichlookasifmadeof claymixedwithoil,arecleanwithoutdoubt.Lacquerar­ticlesaresometimesbroughttoIndiabymerchants, butthepeopleoftheSouthSeasneverusethemaseatingvesselsbecausesucharticlesareliabletobecomegreasy.Buti fthevesselsarenewones,theymaybeusedas wellafterthesmell ofgreaseiscleansedawaywithpureashes.Woodenvesselsarenotusedfortableware.However,newonesmaybeusedoncewithoutitbeingconsidereda fault,butitisanerrorto usethemasecondtime.ThismatterisrelatedintheVinaya.

Inthedonor’shouse,thegroundmustbesmearedwithcow’s

dungattheplacewherethefeastisprepared,andsmallchairsarearrangedseparatelyone by one.A largequantityofwaterisstoredincleanjarsinadvance.Whenthemonksarriveatthehouse,theyuntiethefasteningsoftheirrobes.Afterexaminingthewaterinthecleanjarspreparedforthem,theywashtheirfeetwithit,if no insecthas beenfound in it.Thenthey taketheirseats inthesmall chairsandrest fora while.Havingobservedthetimeandfindingthatthesunisnearlyatthezenith,thedonor

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makestheannouncementthatthetimehasarrived[forpartak­ingof thefeast].Theneachofthemonksfoldshisupperrobeandtiesthetwocornersupinfront,whiletakinguptherightcornerofthelowersideandpressingitunderthegirdleathisleftside.

209bThemonkswashtheirhandscleanwithbeanpowderorearth,eitherwiththedonorpouringwaterforthem,orwiththemonksthemselvesusingwaterfromthekundika(jars).Thisisdoneac­cordingtowhichwayismoreconvenient.Thentheyreturntotheirseatsand receivetheeatingvessels, whichtheywashslightlywithoutlettingthewateroverflow.Beforetakingthemeal,theyneversayprayers.Havingwashedhishandsandfeet,thedonorplacesfoodasasacrificialofferingtotheholymonksatthebegin­ningoftherowofseats,andthendistributesfoodtothemonks

onebyone.Attheendoftherow,aplateoffoodisplacedasanofferingtoMotherHariti.

Onceinherformerlife,thismothermadeavowforsomerea­sonorothertodevourallthebabiesinRajagrha.Owingtoherwickedvow,sheforfeitedherlifeandwasrebornasayaksi(fe­maledemon).Shegavebirthto fivehundredchildrenandatesomemaleorfemalebabiesofRajagrhaeveryday.Thepeopletoldthis

totheBuddha,who,therefore,concealedherlittleson,namedBelovedSon.Inthecourseof seekingherlostsoninmanyplaces,theyaksiat last found her childwherethe Buddha was. The World-honoredOne said to her,“Are yousorry forthe loss of your BelovedSon? Yougrievedattheloss of only one out ofyourfivehundredchildren,yethowmuchmore painedarethosewhohadonlyoneortwochildrenandhavelostthem?”ThentheBuddhaconverted

theyaksiandmadeherobservethefivepreceptsasanupdsikd

(femaledevotee).

TheyaksiaskedtheBuddha,“Ihavefivehundredchildren.Whatshallweeathereafter?”TheBuddhasaidinreply,“Inthemonasterieswherethebhiksusdwell,theywillmakedailyofferingsof foodasmealsforyouandyourstoeat.”Forthisreason,inthemonasteriesofIndiainthewest,imagesorportraitsofHariti,depictingherholdingababyinherarms,withthreeorfivechildren

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roundherknees,arefoundontheporchorinacornerinthekitchen.Everydayabundantofferingsoffoodareplacedbeforethisimage.Beingasubjectof thefourheavenlykings,this motherhasthepowertoenrichpeople.Ifthosewhoaresufferingfromilln essorarechildlessoffersacrificialfoodtoher,theirwishwillalwaysbefulfilled.AfullaccountofherisgivenintheVinaya;Ihavejustrelated thestoryinbrief.IntheDivineLandof China,shewasformerlyknownastheMotherofDemoniacChildren.

Moreover,inthegreatmonasteriesof India,awoodenstatueofadeity,twoorthreefeethigh,isplacedbesideapillarinthekitchenorinfrontofthegateof themainstorehouse.Thedeityisseatedinasmallchair withagoldenbaginhishandandonefoothangingdowntotheground.Blackincolorandoftenanointedwithoil,heiscalledMahakala,ortheGreatBlackDeity.AncienttraditionsaysthatheisasubordinateofMahesvara.Bynatureheadoresthetriplegemand extends protectiontothefivegroupsof Buddhistclergy,sothattheywillnotsustainanydamage.Thosewhosayprayerstohimhavetheirwishesfulfilled.Atmealtimes,thecooksalwaysofferincenseandlampstothedeityandplacebeforehimallkindsoffoodanddrink.

OnceIsawmorethanahundredresidentmonkshavingtheir

mealatBandhanaMonastery,thesitewheretheBuddhapreachedtheMahaparinirvana-sutra.Inthespringandautumnseasonsworshiperswouldarriveunexpectedly.Onedayfivehundredmonkssuddenlycameataboutmidday,andas itwasexactly noon­time,itwasinconvenientfortheresidentmonkstopreparemore

foodfortheuninvitedguests.Themanagingmonksaidtothecooks,209c

“Insuchahurry,whatcan wedo?” Thenanold woman,themotherof a monastic servant,told him,“This isanormalaffair,dontworryaboutit .”Sheburnedmuchincense,litmanylamps,andofferedabundantsacrificialfoodto theBlackDeity,to whomshesaid,Al­thoughtheGreatSagehasenterednirvana,divinebeingslikeyoustillexist.Nowmonksofthefourquartershavecometoworshipthisholy site. Letnot theofferings of foodanddrink bedeficient forthem.Youhavethepowertodothis,andyouknowthisisthetime.

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Thenallthemonks wereinvitedtotakeseats,and theregularamountof foodfortheresidentmonksof themonasterywasservedtothemall one by one.Everyoneof thegreatassemblyof monkswasfullysatisfied,whiletheleftoverfoodwasjustasmuchas

usual.Allofthemshouted,“Sadhu,sadhu!”(“Excellent,excel­lent!”),andpraisedthepowerofthedeity.Iwentthereinperson

toworshiptheholysite.ThusIsawthefeaturesofthatdeity,beforewhomenormousheapsoffoodwereplacedasofferings.WhenIaskedthereason,the monkstoldmetheabovestory.Im­agesofthisdeitywerenotformerlyfoundintheareasnorthoftheHuaiRiverinChina;however,theywereinstalledinmanymonasteriessouthof theYangziRiver.Suppliants who prayedtothedeityalwaysgotfavorableresponses,andhisspiritualefficacywasnotillusory.ThenagaMahamucilindaofMahabodhiMonas­teryalsohassuchmiraculouspowers.

Foodisservedtothemonksinthefollowingway.First,oneortwopiecesofgingeraboutthesizeofathumbandoneorhalfaspoonfulof saltplacedonaleafaredistributedto eachof themonks.Thepersonwhoservesthesaltfoldshishandspalmtopalmandkneelsbeforethechiefmonkwhilechanting,“Sampragatam,”meaning“wellcome.”Theoldtransliterationsam-baiserrone­ous.Thenthechiefmonksaysinreply,“Servethefoodequally.”

Theutteranceofthe[Sanskrit]wordistoindicatethatthemealhasbeenwellpreparedanditistimetoservethefood.Itshouldbeunderstoodas suchaccordingto themeaningof theword.Oncethe Buddhaandhisgroupof disciplesreceivedpoisonedfoodfromsomeone,andhetaughtthemtosay“Sampragatam.”Whentheytookthemeal,allthepoisonturnedtodeliciousfood.Fromthisincidentwemaysaythatthiswordisalsoamysticformula,

notmerelymeaning“wellcom e.”Thiswordmaybepronouncedeitherinthe eastern(Chinese)orinthewestern(Indian)way,asonewishes,atthetimeofutteringit.Inthedistrictsof BingandFen,themonkschantitshizhi(thetimehasarrived),andtheyhaveagoodreasonforit.

Theperson whoservesthefoodmuststandrespectfully, withhistwofeetclosetogether,andbowbeforetherecipientofthe

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food. He holds a vessel with cakes and fruits in his hands. The ediblesshould be dropped into thehandof the diner from onespan above it,whileother kindsof foodare put into thediner’s vessel fromoneortwo inchesaboveit.Otherwiseacceptanceis notinconformity withtherulesconcerningamonktakingthingsfromothers.Amonkmaybegin to eatas soon as his share of food is distributed to him; heneed not waittill food isserved toall thepartakersof the meal.Towaitforfoodto beservedto all monksis notacorrect interpretationof gooddemeanor.Noris it inagreementwiththeholyteachingtoactasonewishesafteramealisover.

Next,cookedround-grainednonglutinousrice,togetherwith

thickbeansoup,isservedwithhotghee.Themonksmixthericeandsoupwiththeirfingers,andaddvariouscondimentstothemixedfood,whichtheyeatwiththeirrighthands.Whenoneisjusth a lfsatiated withthefood,cakesandfruitsareserved,andafterthatyogurtisserved withgranulatedsugar.Whenthemonksarethirsty,theydrinkcoldwater,whetheritiswinterorsum­mer.Thisisabriefaccountofhowthemonkstaketheirdailymealorattendareception.

Formakinganofferingoffoodtothemonks,itiscustomarytoshowhospitalitybypreparingalargeamountofedibles,somuchthatplatesandbowlsbrimoverwithleftovercakesandrice,whileasmuchgheeandyogurtmaybeconsumedasonewishes.IntheBuddha’stime,KingPrasenajitoncepersonallyofferedfoodtotheBuddhaandhisassemblyof disciples.So muchfood,drink,ghee,andyogurtwerepreparedtoservethemthatthevictualsoverflowedontheground.ThiseventismentionedintheVinaya.

WhenIfirstarrivedinthecountryofTamraliptiinEastIndia,

Iintendedtoprepareaplainandmoderatemealasanofferingtoentertainthemonks.Someoneadvisedmenottodoso,saying,“Youcan,of course,prepare justenoughfoodforafeast;butac­cordingtoancienttradition,onemustmakeitarichandsump­tuousaffair.Ifthefoodisjustenoughtofillthestomach,Iamafraidpeoplewilllaughatyou.Ihaveheardthatyoucomefromagreatcountrywhereeverythingisabundant.Ifyoucannotaffordthe

210a

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expense,youhadbetternotpreparethefeast.”ThusIactedaccordingtotheircustom,whichisnotunreasonable,becausethemindofgivinggenerousalmswillgetarichreward.Butapoormanmaypresentwhatevergiftshecanaffordtothe monksafteramealisover.

Whenthemealisover,themonks washtheirmouthswithalittlewater,whichisswallowedinsteadofbeingspatout.Somewaterisputintoabasin,inwhichamonkmaywashhisrighthandbriefly,andafterthathemaystandupfromhisseat.Whenheisabouttostandup,heshouldtakeahandfuloffoodinhisrighthand,whetheritisfoodofferedtotheBuddhaordistributedtothemonks,tobetakenoutandgivenasalmstoalllivingbe­ingsinaccordancewiththeholyteaching.ButitisnottaughtintheVinayato giveawayfoodbeforethemeal.Aplatefulof foodisalsotakenoutasanofferingtothedeadandotherdeitiesandspirits,as wellas tothosewhoareworthyofeatingit.ThiscustomhasitsoriginatVulturePeak,as isrelatedindetailinascripture.Onemaybringthefoodtothechief monkandkneelbeforehim.Thechief monkthensprinklesafewdropsofwateronthefoodanduttersthefollowingprayer:

MaywhatblessednesswehavecultivatedBenefituniversallythoseintherealmofghosts.

Aftereatingthefood,theymayescapefromtheirplightAndberebornafterdeathinablissfulsite.

ThehappinessabodhisattvaenjoysIsaslimitlessasemptyspace.

Byalms-givingonemaygetsuchfruits,Whichwillaugmentwithoutcease.

Then thefoodistakenoutandplacedinaquietspotorunderatree,orthrownintoariverorapond,asalmsgiventothede­ceased. Intheregionsbetween theYangziand theHuaiRivers inChina,thepeopleprepareaseparate platefulof foodbesides themealofferedtothemonks.Thisisthecustomdescribedabove.

Afterthemealisover,thedonorgivestoothwoodandpurewatertothemonks.Howtowashone’shandsandmouthhasbeen

40

FascicleOne

relatedinChapterFive.Atthetimeoftakingleaveof thedonor,themonkssay tohim, “We rejoiceatwhatevermeritoriousdeedsyouhavedone!”Andthentheydisperse.

Thereisnootherreligiousceremony[performedinconnection

withthefeast],exceptthateachof themonksrecitesastanzabyhimself.Asfortheleftoversafterameal,themonksareatlibertytoorderaboytocarryitaway,ortogiveittopoorandlowpeople

oranyotherswhoneedthefoodtoeat.Orifithappenstobea210byearoffamine,oriftheyfearthatthedonormightbeofastingy

nature,theyshouldaskforhispermissionbeforetakingawaytheleftoverfood.Butthedonorofthefeastshouldbynomeanscollecttheremainsofthemealforhimself.SuchisthewaythatmonksreceiveofferingsoffoodinIndia.

Orthedonormayinvitemonkstohishouseasdescribedbe­

fore.HeshouldsetupanimageoftheBuddhaathishousebefore­hand.Whennoontimeisapproaching,themonksgototheholyimageandcrouchdownwiththeirhandsjoinedpalmtopalmtoveneratetheBuddha’smemory.AfterpayinghomagetotheBuddha’simage,theyeatinthemannerrelatedbefore.OrtheymayasksomeonefromamongthemselvestogoandkneelerectbeforetheholyimagewithhishandsjoinedpalmtopalmandpraisetheBuddhainaloudvoice.(Yijing’srunningnote:Thiserectkneelingmeansbothkneestouchthegroundwhilethethighssupportthebodyerect.InoldtimesitwasknownaskneelinginthewayoftheHupeople.Butitiswrongtosayso,becausetheerectkneelingispopularinallfivepartsof India,so howcanitbesaidtobethekneelingoftheHupeoplealone?)ThemonkwhoisaskedtopraisetheBuddhaonlysingsoftheBuddha’svirtues;nothingelseissaid.

Thenthedonorlightslamps,scattersflowerswithsingle-

mindeddevotion, rubsthemonks’feetwithperfumedpaste,andburnsincense in profusion. All this is notusuallydone by differentpersons.Meanwhile,accordingtocirc*mstances,drumsandstringedinstrumentsmaybeplayedtoaccompanysongsasanofferingofmusic.Thenthemealisservedtoeachofthemonks

41

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

onebyoneashasbeendescribedbefore.Whenthemealisover,waterisprovidedfromabottleinfrontofthemonks.Afterthatthechiefmonkuttersashortdanagatha(aversetoexpressgrati­tude)tothedonor.Suchisanotherwaythatmonksreceiveofferings

offoodinIndia.

AlthoughthemannerofeatinginthewesterncountryofIn­diaisdifferentinmanywaysfromthatof China,I willmakeabriefaccountoftheIndianwayofeatingaccordingtotherulesoftheVinaya.

IntheVinayatheSanskrittermspahcabhojanlyaandpancakhadaniyaare mentioned.Thewordbhojaniyameansregu­lar food, andkhadaniya,whatis chewed and eaten. Aspancameansfive,pancabhojanlyashouldbetranslatedintoChineseasfivekinds

ofedibles,whichwereformerlyknownasthefivekindsofregularfoodaccordingtothesemanticmeaningoftheword.Theyare(1)cookedrice,(2)mixedmealmadeofbarleyandbeans,(3)parchedriceflour,(4)meat,and(5)cakes.Thewordpancakhadaniyashouldbetranslatedasthefivekindsofmasticatedfood,namely,(1)roots,

(2)stalks,(3) leaves,(4)flowers,and(5) fruits.Ifonehasnochoicebuttoeatthe firstgroupof food,onewouldcertainlynotliketo eatanythingofthesecondgroup,butif onehasfirsteatenfoodof thesecondcategory,onemightstillwishtoeatsomemoreofthefirstcategory.Weknowthatmilk,yogurt,etc.,arenotincludedinthetwo groupsof food,becausenosuchnamesareseparatelymentionedintheVinaya,anditisclearthattheydonotbelongtotheclassofregularfood.Anyfoodmadeofwheatflour,i f so solidthataspoonputinto itstandserectwithoutslantinganyway,isincludedundercakesandcookedrice.Dryriceflourmixedwithwaterisalsoin­cludedunderoneof thefivekindsof [regular]food,if itissothickthatfingertracesremainvisibleonitssurface.

TheboundariesofthefivepartsofIndiaareextensiveandremote,and,roughlyspeaking,thelengthof theradiusstretch­ingtothefourquartersofthe landis morethanfourhundredpoststations.AlthoughI did notsee all things withmy owneyesat placesotherthanthefrontierregions,Icouldmakecarefulinquiries

42

FascicleOne

to findoutaboutthem.Alledibles,whetherforeatingorchewing,areexquisitelypreparedindifferentways.Inthenorth,wheatflourisplentiful,whileinthewest,bakedriceflourisabundant.InthecountryofMagadha,wheatflourisscarce,butriceisabun­dant.Thesouthern frontierand theeasternborderlandgrowthesamecropsasMagadha.Gheeandyogurtarefoundeverywhere,andsuchthingsascakesandfruitsareuncountable.The

laypeopleseldomeatfishormeat.Mostofthecountriesproduce210c

muchnonglutinousricebutlittlemilletandnoglutinousmilletatall.Therearesweetmelonsandsugarcane,andtarosareabun­dant.Okraisscarce,but rapeturnipsaregrowninsufficientquan­tities.Thelatterhasblackandwhiteseeds,whichhaverecentlybeentranslatedinto Chineseas“mustardseeds. ” Theoilextractedfromtheseseedsisedibleinallcountries.Whenweeatit*leavesasavegetable,wefindthetasteisjustthesameasthatof aChi­neseturnip;thedifferenceisthatit*rootishardandtough.Theseedissolargethatitisbiggerthana[Chinese]mustardseed.Thechangemayhavebeencausedbythechangeofsoil,justastheorangetreemaybearcitronswhentransplantedfromoneplacetoanother.AtNalandaIdiscussedthisperplexingmatterwiththeDhyanamasterWuxing,butwecouldnotclarifythematterinourdebate.Again,thepeopleof allfivepartsof Indiado noteatdifferentmincedcondimentsmadeof ginger,garlic,orleek,nordotheyeatlettuceandthelike.Therefore,theydonotsufferfrombellyaches.Theirstomachsandintestinesaresoftandcomfort­able,andfreefromthetroubleofbecominghardandinelastic.

InthetenislandsoftheSouthSeas,theofferingsoffoodonfestivaldaysarestillmoresubstantiallyandliberallyprepared.Onthefirstday,apieceofbetel nut,somefragrantoilextractedfromaconite,andasmallquantityofcrushedriceareplacedonaleafasavessel,whichthenissetonabigplateandcoveredwithapieceofwhite kapokcloth.Watercontainedinagoldenbottleisdrippedonthegroundbeforetheplateasasignaltoinvitethemonks,whoareaskedtoanointthemselvesandtakeabathbeforenoontimeonthedayafterthefollowingday.Afternoontimeon

43

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

thefollowingday,amidthemusic ofdrum-beatingandtheofferingoffragrantflowers,aholyimageiscarriedeitherinacanopiedcarriageorinanimperialpalanquinwithstreamersand bannersflutteringinthesun.Monksandlay followersof theDharmahurrylikescuddingcloudstothehouseof thedonor,whereatentwithcurtainshasbeenpitchedfortheoccasion.Thegoldenorbronzeimageisbrilliantly decoratedinabeautifulmannerandanointedwitharomaticpaste.Itisplacedinabasin,and thepeoplebatheitinscentedwaterwithdevotion.Afterhavingbeenwipedcleanwithapieceofperfumedcottoncloth,itistakentothemainhallofthehouse.Asincenseisburnedandlampslitinprofusion,thepeoplebegintosingeulogistichymns.Thenthechiefmonkrecitesthedanagathaforthesakeofthedonortoexplainthemeritsofalms-giving.Afterthatthemonksareinvitedtocomeoutofthehalltowashtheirhandsandmouths,andthentheyareenter­tainedwithsugarwaterandsufficientbetelnuts.Afterthis,theassemblyofmonksbreaksupanddeparts.

Whennoontimeisapproachingonthethirdday,thedonorgoestothemonasteryandannouncesrespectfullythatthetime[fortheinvitation]hascome.Themonks,aftertakingbaths,areledtothedonor’shouse.Theholyimageissetupagainandbathedbriefly,buttherearetwicetheflowers,incense,andmusicofbeat­ingdrumsasthe previous morning.Allofferingsareplacedbeforetheimage,andfiveortenmaidens,orsometimesboysaccordingtocirc*mstances,standsolemnlyoneachsideoftheimage,hold­ingintheirhandsthuriblesorgoldenbathingjugsorincenseorlampsorfreshflowersorwhitechauris.Thepeoplecomewithtoi­letsetsplacedondressingtablesandmirrorscontainedincasesandtheliketooffertotheimageoftheBuddha.WhenIaskedthemthemeaningoftheiraction,theyrepliedthatitwasinthecauseofacquiringblessedness,andsaidthatiftheydidnotmakeofferingsnow,howcouldtheyexpecttogainanyrewardsinthefuture?Logicallyspeaking,theirsisagoodaction.

Next,amonkisinvitedtosinghymnswhilekneelingbeforetheimageoftheBuddha.Thentwomoremonksareseparately

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FascicleOne

invited,eachtakingaseattoonesideoftheimage,torecitea211abriefscriptureofoneorhalfapage.Sometimestheysanctifyan

imageoftheBuddhabymarkingoutthepupilsoftheimage,soastoacquiresuperiorhappiness.Thentheyreturntowhicheverside

astheyplease,andfolduptheirkasayasbyfasteningthetwofrontcornerstogether.Afterwashingtheirhands,theyareready

totakethemeal.(Yijing’srunningnote:KasayaisaSanskritword,meaningthecolorofgandha[poundedsandalwood],andas ithasnoetymologicalconnectionwiththeChineselanguage,whyshouldonetakethetroubletotransliterateitwithtwoChinesecharac­terstodenotethemonks’robes?Accordingtothetextualtermsof

theVinaya,allthreerobeswornbyamonkareknownascivara[amonk’sdress].)Themannerofpreparingforthemeal,suchasdaubingthegroundwithcow’sdung,examiningwater,washing

themonks’feet,takingandservingthefood,aregenerallythesameas in India,exceptthattheyalso eatthethreekinds ofpuremeat.Theygenerallysewleavesintoplatesaslargeashalfamat

tokeeponeortwodou(onedouequalstenliters)ofcookednonglutinousriceoneachplate,orelsesmallerreceptaclesaremadetocontainoneortwosheng(oneshengequalsoneliter)ofrice,whichisbroughttothemonksandhandedtothem.Thenvariousotherkindsoffood,twentyorthirtyitems,areservedtothemonks.Thisisinthecaseofamealpreparedbyapoorandhumblehousehold.I fitisdonebyaroyalfamilyorrichpeople,bronzeplatesandbowlsandleafvesselsaslargeasamatareused

tocontainmorethanahundredvarietiesof foodanddrink.Eventhekingsgiveuptheirnoblepositionofdignityandcallthem­selvesservantsso astoservefoodtothemonks withperfectre­spectandveneration.

Themonksmustacceptwithoutrejectionwhateveramountof

foodisofferedtothem.Iftheytookjustenoughfoodtosatisfytheirhunger,thedonorwouldfeeldispleased.Hefeelspleasedonlywhenheseesthattoomuchfoodisbeingserved.Fourorfiveshengof cookedriceandtwoorthreeplatesofpancakesandfruitsareofferedtoeachmonk,andthedonor’srelativesandneighbors

45

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

mayhelppreparethe mealbycontributingrice or cakes.Thereismorethanonedishofsoupand vegetablesforeachpartakerofthemeal,and theleftoverfoodforeachmonkissufficientto feedthreeorfourpersons.Inthecaseof asumptuousmeal,eventenpersonscannotconsumetheremainingfoodleftby onemonk.Alltheremainsof amealareputatthedisposalofthemonks,whomayordertheirservantstocarrythefoodawaywiththem.

ButtheceremonyoffeastingthemonksintheDivineLandofChinaisdifferentfromthatofIndiainthewest.InChina,what­everfoodisleftoverisgatheredbythedonor,andthemonksarenotexpectedtotakeitawayatwill.Therefore,themonksshouldactaccording to thecirc*mstances,becontentwithwhattheyhave,andnotbringdisgraceonthemselves,sothattheywillnotbeunworthyofthegoodmindofthedonorinalms-giving.Butifthedonorhasmadeuphismindnottogathertheremainingfoodandhasinvitedthemonkstotakeitaway,theymaythendowhatissuitablefortheoccasion.

Afterthemonkshavefinishedtheirmealandhavewashedtheirhandsandmouths,theremainingfoodisclearedawayandthegroundsweptclean.Flowersarescatteredandlampslit,whileincenseisburnedtomaketheairaromatic,andwhatistobepre­sentedtothemonksisarrangedbeforethem.Thenperfumepaste,aboutthesizeof aseedoftheChineseparasoltree,isdistributedtothemonks,whorubtheirhandswithittomakethemfragrantandclean.Next,betelnutsandnutmegsmixedwithclovesandcamphorareofferedto them.Whenchewed,thisrendersthemouthfragrantandalsohelpsdigestionandcuresheartdisease.Thesearomaticand medicinalthingsmustbewashedwithpurewaterandwrappedinfreshleavesbeforetheyarehandedtothemonks.

Thedonorthengoestothechiefmonk,orapproachesacom­petentteacher,andpourswaterfromthespoutofabottleintoa

211bbasin,sothatthewaterflowsoutincessantlylikeaslendercopperstick.Theteacher,withflowersinhishand,receivesthetricklingwaterwhileherecitesthedanagatha.HemustfirstrecitetheversesspokenbytheBuddhaandthenthosecomposedbyother

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FascicleOne

persons.Hemayreciteasmanyorasfewversesashewishes,accordingtothetimehehasathisdisposal.Hemustmentionthenameofthedonor,prayingforwealthand happinessforhimandwishingtotransferthehappyrewardof gooddeedsdoneinthepresenttothedeceasedpredecessors,totheemperorsandprinces,as wellas tothenagas(serpentdemons)andspirits.Healso wishesforrichharvestsinthecountry,forthepeopleandothercreaturestoliveinpeace,andforthenobleteachingofSakyamuniBuddhato beeverlasting.Thegatha,whichI havetranslatedinsomeotherplace,istheblessingutteredbytheWorld-honoredOnewhenhe

waslivingintheworld.Afterthemealisover,theDaksinagatha(verseofalms-giving)mustberecited.Suchistheceremonyofgivingalms.Adaksinlyaisonewhoisworthytobehonoredwithalms.Therefore,theHolyOnelaiddowntherulethataftereachmealthemonksshouldreciteoneortwodanagathastorecom­pensethedonorforhisbounteousness.(Yijing’srunningnote:Theword“donor”isatranslationoftheSanskrittermdanapati.Danameansalmsandpati,alord.TheChinesetermtan-yue,indicatingthatbypracticingalms-givingonemaygetacrossthestreamofpoverty,isnotacorrecttranslationoftheSanskritword,inspite

ofthegoodinterpretation.Itisalsoincorrecttotransliteratedaksinaasda-chen.)Ifwedonotdoso,wearenotonlyactingcontrarytotheholyteachings,butweshallalsobeunworthyofthefoodwehaveconsumed.Beggingfortheremainsof amealissometimespracticed.

Thengiftsaredistributed,ora“wishingtree”ismadeand

presentedtothemonks,oragoldenlotusflowerismanufacturedasanofferingtotheimageofthe Buddha.Therearefreshflowersinknee-highheaps andenoughwhitekapokcloth to fill a couch.Aftermiddayasermonisoccasionallydeliveredonashortscrip­ture,andthemonkssometimesdisperseatnightfall.Atthetime

ofdeparture,theyexclaim“Sadhu!”andalso“Anumoda.”Sadhumeans“Welldone!”andanumodaistranslatedas“Irejoiceatwhatisbeingdone!”Whengiftsarepresentedtoothersortoone­self,oneshouldutterthesameexpressions.Boththeonewho

47

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

presentsthegiftsandtheone whopraisestheactionwith joywillgain bliss in the same way. Such isthe generalcustom of the monksreceivingofferingsoffoodinthetenislandsoftheSouthSeas.

Peopleofthemiddleclassextendaninvitationwiththepre­sentationof betelnutstothemonksonthefirstday.Onthesec­onddayanimageoftheBuddhaisbathedwhenitisnearlynoontime,andthemealisfinishedatmidday,whilepreachingisheldintheevening.Thepoorer peopleeitheroffersometoothwoodtoinvite the monksonthefirstdayandsimplyprepareamealonthefollowingday,ortheyapproachthemonksandexpresstheirwishtoinvitethemwithoutfurtherceremony.

ButthecustomisdifferentamongtheHutribesofthenorth,incountriessuchasTukharaandSuri.Therethedonorfirstpre­

sentsaflowercanopyasanofferingtothecaitya(temple),andthenthemonksgoroundtheholyobjectwhileaskingaprecentor

tosaytheprayersintheirentiretybeforetheytakethemeal.HowtheflowercanopylookshasbeendescribedintheXi-fang-ji(ARecordoftheWest).

Althoughtheceremoniesforofferingfoodtothemonksmaybesimpleorelaborateindifferentcountries,andthedishesservedmayberichorscant,themonks’regulations,suchas thoseonthepreservationofpurityorthewayofeatingfoodwithone’sfingers,

2iicandthemajormonasticrulesaremuchthesame.Someofthemonkspracticethedhuta(ascetic)disciplines,livingbybeggingforfoodandwearingonlythethreerobes.Ifsuchamonkisin­vitedandofferedgoldandvaluables,hesimplydiscardsthemlikemucusorsalivaandretirestoliveinalonelyforest.ButinChina

intheeast,thecustomisthatwhenadonorwishestoentertainsomemonks withameal,hesimplydispatchesaninvitationcardtothem.Evenonthemorningofthefollowingday,hedoesnotgoinpersonto invitethemonks.Whencompared withtheteachingsoftheBuddha,thispracticeseemsshortofcordiality.Thelaydis­ciplesshouldbetaughtpropermanners.Whengoingtoattendareception,amonkshouldbringhisfilterwithhim,andthewaterfortheuseofthemonksmustbeexamined.Afterthemeal,amonk

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FascicleOne

shouldchewtoothwoodtocleanhismouth.I fthereisanyrem­nantfoodleftinthemouth,themealisconsideredunfinished,andevenshouldhepassthewholenighthungry,hewillnotbesparedtheguiltoftakingfoodatirregulartimes[ashehasfoodparticlesinhismouth],IhopethatwewillmakeastudyofthemannerofeatinginIndiaandreconsiderthecustomsprevalentinChina.Thenwemaynaturallyknowwhatisappropriateandwhatisinappropriate.AsIdonothavetheleisuretogiveafullaccountofthematter,Ileaveittothewisetoponder.

OnceIwroteanessay,whichreadsasfollows:

TheSupreme World-honoredOne,theFatherofGreatCom­passion,havingpityonthosewhoareplungedintheseaoftransmigration,triedhardtogainenlightenmentforthreegreatkalpas(eons),and,withthehopetoguidethem,helivedforsevendozensofyearstospreadhisteachings.Con­sideringthattheforemostrequirementsforupholdingtheDharmawerefoodandclothing,hefearedthatthismightgiverisetoworldlytroubles,andthereforelaiddownstrictrulesandprohibitions.Theseregulations,whichreflectthewilloftheBuddha,shouldbeobservedandpracticed.Butonthecontrary,therearesomemonkswhoindiscreetlythinkthemselvesguiltlessanddonotknowwhatsortsofeatingmightcausedefilement.Theyobserveonlytheoneruleagainstsexualconduct,andsay,“Sinceweareguilt­less,whyshouldwetakethetroubletostudytheVinayarules?Eatinganddrinking,dressingandundressingareirrelevant. TheBuddha’swill ispointingouttheWaylead­ingdirectlytothegateofvoidness.”ButhowdotheyknowthattheVinayaruleswerenotlaiddownatthewilloftheBuddha?Itisoutofmereassumptionthattheyvalueoneruleand disregard another.Theirdisciplesfollowtheirex­amplesand never readorhavealookattheVinayarules.Whentheyhavecopiedjusttwofasciclesofbooksonthegateofvoidness,theysaythatthisdoctrinecoversallthe

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

theoriesoftheTripitaka.Theydonotconsiderthateachm outhfuloffoodswallowedillegallym igh tcausethesufferingofdrinkingmoltencopperinhell.Dotheyalsonot

knowthateachsteptakencarelesslymightincurthemis­eryofbeingatraitor?

Theoriginalintentionofthebodhisattvaistokeeptheskinrafttight[sothatwemaycrosstheseaof rebirth].Wemustnotoverlookanyminoroffense;thenwemayrenderthislifethelastonewithout furtherrebirth.ItisrightforustopracticeboththeMahayanaandtheHinayanadoc­trinesinkeepingwiththeinstructionsoftheCompassion­ateWorld-honoredOne.Whatfaultisthereifwetakeprecautions againstminoroffensesandgaininsightintothegreatvoidness,toacceptalllivingbeingsandclarifytheirminds?Forfearthat[myfellowmonksathome]mayper­plexthemselvesandmisguideothers,Ijustsubmitthisin­completeinformationaccordingtotheBuddha’steachingsinthehopethattheymaydrawinferencesfromitandgaincompleteknowledge.TheDharmaofvoidnessistrueandnotfalse,butthisisnotareasontodisregardtheVinayatexts.ItbefitsustorecitetheVinayarulesandmakeaconfessiontoclearawayourfaultseveryfortnight.OneshouldalwaysadviseandexhortthedisciplestoworshiptheBuddhathreetimesaday.TheBuddha-dharmaisde­cliningintheworlddaybyday,andIhavenoticedthatwhatIsawinmychildhoodwastotallydifferentfromwhatIseenow inmyoldage.Sincewehave witnessedthe presentsituation,wemustbemorecarefulaboutourbehavior.Eat­

inganddrinkingare,however,aburdentous.Theyareourconstantnecessity,butI hopethose who respecttheBuddhawillnotdisregardhisholyteachings.

Letmerepeatit:

Outof theeightythousandholyteachings,only oneortwoaremostimportant.Outwardlyoneshouldconformtothe

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FascicleOne

worldly way,whileinwardlyoneshouldconcentrateontruewisdom.Butwhatistheworldlyway?Itisobservingtheprohibitiverulesandbeingguiltless.Andwhatistruewis­dom?It istheabandonmentof boththe facultyof sightandtheobjectseen.Oneshouldfollowthesuperiortruthwith­outanyattachment,anddoawaywiththeentanglementsoflifearisingfromthechainofcausality.Onemustdili­gentlyaccumulate meritbypracticingmoregooddeeds,soastorealizethewonderfulmeaningof perfecttruth.Howcanamonkfalselydeclarethathehasattainedthestateofbodhi(enlightenment),whilehehasneverstudiedtheTripitaka,knowsneithertheteachingsnortheprinciplesoftheDharma,andhascommittedsinfuldeedsasnumer­

ousasthegrainsofsandintheGangesRiver?Bodhimeansenlightenment,inwhichallillusionsandentanglementsaredestroyed.Thereisneitherbirthnordeathinthestateknownaseternalreality.HowcanwecarelesslysaythatwearelivingintheWesternParadise,whileweareactu­allystayingintheseaof suffering?Onewhodesirestoreal­izethetruthofeternityshouldobservethedisciplinaryruleswithpurityasa basis.Oneshouldguardagainstatinyholethatmightbepuncturedintheairbag,andtakeprecau­tionsagainstthemajoroffenses,eventhoughtheymightassumesuchasmall shapeas aneedle’seye.Ofallthe greatgrievances,theforemostaremainlycausedbyfoodandclothing.IfonefollowstheBuddha’steachings,onewillnotbefarfromgainingspiritualliberation,andifonedisre­gardsthenoblewords,onewillsurelybesubmergedintheseaofrebirthforalongtime.

Ihavesofarrelatedtherightfulpracticesandbrieflydescribedsomeexamplesofourpredecessors.Allthisisbasedontheholyregulations;nonecomesoutofm yownviewsandintentions.Ihopemyreaderswillnotfeeldispleasedatmystraightforward

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

statement,andthatitmaybeusefulforthose whoare farawayfrom me. I f I do notmakeanexactstatementand submitit tomyreaders,whowilldiscernwhatisrefinedandwhatisvulgar?

EndofFascicleOne

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FascicleTwo

10.TheRequirementsforRaimentandFood

Itmaybeobservedthatthecorporeal bodydependsuponfoodandclothingforitsmaintenance,whiletheperfectwisdomofnore­birthismanifestedthroughthetruthof voidness.I fonemakesuseof foodandclothinginawaycontrarytopropermanners,onewillincurblameononeselfstepbystep;andi ftheconcentratedmindlosesitspropercourse,onewillgetintoperplexitythoughtafterthought.Therefore,thosewhowishtorealizespirituallib­erationinthecourseofusingfoodandclothingshouldusetheminaccordancewiththeholywordsoftheBuddha,andthosewhotrytopracticethetruthwithaconcentratedmindshouldconformwiththeteachingsofformersagesinordertoconcentratetheirminds.Lookingdownuponthelifebelow,oneseesthatitisbutadungeonforthosewho havegoneastray.Gazinguptotheshoreofnirvana,onebeholdstheopengateofenlightenmentandtran­quility.OnlybydoingsomayonepulltheboatofDharmatotheshoreintheseaofsufferingandholdupthetorchof wisdomdur­ingthelongperiodofdarkness.Asregardstheregulationsaboutwearingrobesandhowtoeatanddrink,observanceandviolationareexpresslyprescribedintheVinayatexts;evenabeginnerintheDharmaknowswhatisagraveoffenseandwhatisalightone.Thisis,however,amatter,whethermeritoriousordemeritorious,thatconcernsonlyindividualpersons,andweneednottakethetroubletoargueabout ithere.TherearesomewhobehaveagainsttheVinayarulesandyetguideothersintheirconduct.Therearesomeotherswhoholdthatusagegivesrisetopractices,that,whethertheyarerightorwrong,areconsideredregularand

212b

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

faultless.SomeothersarguethattheBuddhawasborninthewest,where the monksfollowthecustomandmannersof thewest,whileaswearemonkslivingintheeast,weshouldfollowtherulesandregulationsoftheeast.“Howcanwe, ”theywouldsay,“change theelegantdressof theDivineLandofChinaandacceptthepeculiarcustomsofIndia?”ItisforpeopleholdingsuchviewsthatIhave madethisroughstatement,sothattheycanweighthematterbythemselves.

Astheregulationsconcerningclothingaretheguidingprin­ciplesofhomelessmonks,itbefitsmetogiveafulldescriptionofthestyleoftheirclothing.Thisshouldneverbeneglectedorover­looked.Thelapsof thethreerobes wornbymonksinallfivepartsof Indiaaresewntogether;onlyinChinaaretheyopenwithoutbeingstitchedup.Imyself havemadeinquiriesinthenortherncountriesofIndiawheretheVinayaoftheDharmaguptaSchoolisprevalentandfoundthattheopeningsoftherobesaresewntogether;nowherearetheyleftopen.I famonkof Indiahasob­tainedaChinesereligiousrobe,he wouldprobablysew uptheopen­ingsbeforehewouldwearit.TheVinayatextsofalltheschoolsmentionthatthelapsoftherobesshouldbesewnandfastenedtogether.Therearestrictrulesaboutthesixrequisitesofthemonks,andthethirteennecessitiesarefullyexplainedintheVinayatexts.Thefollowingarethesixrequisites:

1.Thesamghati,whichistranslatedas“doublerobe.”

2.Theuttarasariga,whichistranslatedas“upperrobe.”

3.Theantarvasa,whichistranslatedas“innergarment.”(Thesethreegarmentsareknownasthecivara.Inthe

northerncountriestheyaregenerallycalledthekasayafromtheirreddishcolor.However,thisisnotatechnicaltermused

intheVinayatexts.)

4.Thepatra,abeggingbowl.

5.Thenisidana,aclothormatforsittingorlyingon.

6.Theparisravana,afilter.

Acandidateforordinationmustpossessthesesixrequisites.

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FascicleTwo

Thefollowingarethethirteennecessities:

1.Thesamghatl.

2.Theuttarasanga.

3.Theantarvasa.

4.Thenisidana.

5.Anundergarment.

6.Asubstituteundergarment.

7.Thesamkaksika(aside-coveringvest).

8.Asubstitutesamkaksika.

9.Atowelforwipingthebody.

10.Atowelforwipingtheface.

11.Apinaforeusedwhenshavingone’shair.

12.Apieceofclothforcoveringitchyplaces.

13.Agarmentwornwhendecoctingmedicine.

Aversesays:

Threerobesandasittingcloth,

Acoupleofskirtsandtwoside-covers,

Towelsforwipingbodyandface,apinaforeforshaving,Aclothtocoveritchesandagarbfordecoctingmedicine.

Thesearethe thirteenkindsof clotheswhichamonkispermittedtopossess.Sincethereareestablishedrulesconcerningclothing,onemustusethemincompliancewiththeBuddha’steaching.Thesethirteenarticlesshouldnotbeclassedwithothersurplusbelongingsofamonk,butshouldbeseparatelylisted,clearlycounted,andwellpreserved.Whenonereceivesanyof thesethings,onemaykeepthem,butoneshouldnottakethetroubletopossessallthatis giventoone.Asregardsthesurplusrobes,amonk maydisposeofthemindifferentwaysaccordingtocirc*mstances,butasforsuchthingsaswoolenmattresses,blankets,mats,andthelike,hemayacceptandusethemonlywiththeunderstandingthattheyarepurposelycommittedtohimbythegivers.

Som etim espeoplespeakofthreerobesandtennecessities,butitwastheideaofsometranslatorstodividethethirteen

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

necessitiesintotwogroups;itisnotinaccordancewiththeSan­skrittexts.Theyspeakseparatelyofthethreerobesandlistthetenarticlesapartfromtherobes.Buttheycannotgiveafull listofthetenarticles,andthuscausegroundless conjectureandguess­ing.Iftheyinterpretthewordshi(meaningten)as“miscellaneous,”thisisnottheoriginalmeaning.

ThegarmentfordecoctingmedicinewhichtheBuddhaper­mittedthemonkstokeepshouldbemadeof apieceof silkabouttwentyfeetlong,orawholerollofit.Asonemayfallillatanytime,itwouldbedifficultto obtainsuchagarmentinahurry,andsoamonkispermittedtomakeonebeforehandandkeepit.Asthisgarmentisneededintimeofillness,itmustnotbeusedatrandomtimes.

Thepurposeofthegateofspiritual cultivationandbenefitinglivingbeingsisuniversalsalvation.Sincemenareofthreegradesofintelligence,theycannotbelimitedtoonlyoneway.Thefourdependences,thefouractions,andthetwelveasceticpracticesareordainedformenofsuperiorintelligence.Keepingaroomforone’sownuseandacceptinggiftsofthethirteennecessitiesaregoodformonksofbothmediumandinferiorintelligence,sothatthosewhohavefewerdesireswillbesparedtheembarrassmentofhavingsurplusdailyrequisites,andthosewhowishtohavemorewillnotfretatdeficiency.Greatisthecompassionatefatherwhoskillfullyanswerstheneedsofmenofallgradesofintelli­genceandisagoodteacherforhumanandheavenlybeings,withthetitleofGuideofMen.

Theassertionthatonehundredandonethingsmaybeofferedtomeetamonk’sphysicalneedsis not foundintheVinayatextsofthefourschools.Althoughallusionstoitaremadeinsomescriptures,itwasmentionedonlyonspecialoccasions.Evenawealthylaymandoesnotpossessmorethanfiftyhouseholdarticles.Howcanamonk,whoisdetachedfromworldlyen­tanglements,beallowed,onthecontrary,toownmorethanahundredthings?Onemay judgebyreasontoknowwhetheritispermissibleornot.

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FascicleTwo

Asregardstheuseof fineandtoughsilk,itispermittedby theholyBuddha.Whyshouldoneforciblyprohibittheuseofittomakethingsknottier?Ijudge thattheintentiontosimplifythingsrenderedmattersmorecomplicated.Inallfivepartsof India,monksofthefourschoolswear[silkrobes].Whyshouldwerejectsilk,whichiseasytoprocure,andtrytoobtainfinecotton,whichisdifficulttoseek?Isn’titahindrancethatobstructstheWayto theutmost?SucharulebelongstotheclassofprohibitionsthatwerenotlaiddownbytheBuddhabutwereenforcedbyothers.ThiscausedsomemeddlesomeobserversoftheVinayarulestoswelltheirself-conceitandlookdownuponothers.

Thosevenerableoneswhoseeknothingandhavefewdesires,

beinghumble-mindedinwardlyandmodestoutwardly,wouldsaythattheirsisthebestwaytocoveroneself;whatelsewoulditbe?

Theymeanthatsilkisproducedbyinjuringlife,whichhurtsthe

mindofcompassionextremely.Outofpityforlivingbeings,itis2i3alogicaltonotusesilk.Ifthatisso,thentheclotheswewearand

thefoodweeatareinmostcasesproducedbyinjurytolife.Ifwedidnotpay attentiontomolecricketsandearthworms,whyshouldwebespeciallymindfulof chrysalisesandsilkworms?Ifonewishestoprotectallanimatebeings,thentherewillbenomeansof sus­tainingoneself,andwhyshouldoneforsakelifewithoutagoodreason?Fromlogicalinference,wemayconcludethatsuchanideaisimpractical.Thosemonkswhor*frainfromeatinggheeandcurds,andfromwearing leathershoesandsilkorflossrobes,arepeopleoftheclassmentionedabove.

Regardingthequestionofkilling,ifalifeisdestroyedinten­

tionally,itisthenconsideredakarmicdeed[thatwillproduceitsdueeffect],buti f itisdoneunintentionally,theBuddhasaid,itisnotconsideredanevildeed.Thethreekindsofpuremeataredesignatedastobeeatenwithoutincurringblame.I fonedoesnotactinconformity withthespiritof thisrule,onecommits butaslightoffense.[Toargueitbymeansofasyllogism,wemayraisethepropositionthat]eatingpuremeatisguiltless,forthereason,whichisacceptedbybothpartiestotheargument,

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

thattheactisdonewithouttheintentionofkilling.I f weaddanexampletothesyllogism,thestatementwillbeclearandmanifest.Sincethereasonandexampleindicatethattheactisguiltless,thepropositionbecomesself-apparent.Thesyllogismhasmadethestatementperspicuous,and moreover,itis thegoldensayingoftheBuddha.Whyshouldwethentakethetroubletogiveitmorestrainedinterpretations?Theysimplymadepeopleasconfusedasthemiswritingof“fivehundred”for“fivedays”throughaslipoftheauthor’spenandtheerroneousreadingof“threepigs”for“earth-pig,”whichwastransmittedbythosewhobelievedthewordstobetrue.

Suchanactionasbeggingforlivecocoonsandwitnessingthedestructionofthesilkwormsissomethingthatevenalayscholarwouldnotdo,letaloneamonk, whoaspiresto gainliberationfromtheworld.To quotethisasaproof,Iconsideritutterly inadmissible.Ifadonorcomeswithapuremindtopresentasilkrobetoamonk,

themonkshoulduttertheword“Anumoda”andacceptittoclothehisbodysothathemaycultivatevirtue,withoutincurringanyblame.

Inthefivepartsof India,thereligiousgarmentmaybestitchedorsewnatone’sdiscretion,disregardingwhetherthethreadsoftheclotharelengthwiseorcrosswise.Thetimeformakingitdoesnotexceedthreeorfivedays.Oneboltofsilkcanbecutintoonegarmentofsevenstripesandanotheroffivestripes.Theinsidepatchesarethreefingerswide,whiletheperipheraledgesareoneinchbroad.Theseedgeshavethreerowsofstitching,andthein­sidepatchesareallsewntogether.Asthesegarmentsareusedforperformingdailydutiesorholdingceremonies,whyshould wemakethemlookfineandexquisite?

Theintentionof those who wearragrobes is to simplify things.They mayeithergathercast-offragsfromrubbishheapsorpickupabandonedclothes at a cemetery.Wheneverthey haveobtainedsuchrags,theysewthemupintorobestoprotectthemselvesagainstcoldandhotweather.

Some peoplesaythatwhatismentionedas sleepingarticlesintheVinayatextsisincludedinthecategoryofthethreerobes.

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FascicleTwo

Whentheyseethattheuseof silkfromwildcocoonsisprohibited[formakingsleepingarticles],theyholdtheviewthattherobesalsoshouldnotbemadeof silk.Thus they tryhardtoseekcottoncloth,notknowingthatintheoriginaltexts“sleepingarticle”ac­tuallymeansamattressandthatthewordkauseyaisthenameforsilkworm.Whenthesilkfiberis wovenintosilkcloth,itisalsoknownbythesamename.Asitiscostlymaterial,makingitintoa

mattressisnotallowed.

Therearetwowaysofmakingamattress.Onewayistosewapieceofclothtomakeabagandfillitwithwool.Anotheristoweavesilkthreadintoamattresswhichissomethinglikeacar­pet.Itistwocubitswide,fourcubitslong,andmaybethickorthinaccordingtotheseason.Beggingforamattressisforbidden,butifitisgivenasalms,itmaybeacceptedwithoutincurringblame.Ifitwerecompletely banned,itwouldbeagravematter,andastrictruleshouldhavebeenlaiddownagainstit*use.Suchmattressesarenotthesameasthethreerobes.

Again,whatismentionedintheVinayaasrightlivelihoodmainlyconcernstheprocurementofsubsistence.Theplowingand2i3bweedingoffieldsshouldbedoneintheproperway,whilesowing

andplantingmustnotbedoneinamannerwhichviolatestheguidingprinciples ofthereligion.Iffoodistakenaccordingto theregulations,itwill notgiverisetoanyblame.Onlythenmayonesaythatbybuildingupthebodyonecanincreasehappiness.

AccordingtotheteachingoftheVinaya,inthecultivationofpaddyfields,theSangha(communityofmonks)mustsharethecropswiththemonasticservantsandmayalsosharethemwithotherfamilies,allofwhommaygetone-sixthoftheproduce.TheSanghaprovidesfarmcattleandlandonly,andisresponsiblefornothingelse.Thedivisionof cropsmaybeappropriatelyadjustedaccordingtocirc*mstances.

Mostofthemonasteriesinthewestfollowthesystemmen­

tionedabove.Therearesomeavariciousmonkswhodonotsharetheproduceinproportionwithothers,butemploymaleandfe­maleslavesandpersonallymanagethefarmingbusiness.Bhiksus

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whoabidebythedisciplinaryrulesrefusetoeatthefoodproducedbysuchmonksbecausetheythinkthatsuchmonks,bypersonallyrunningafarm,supportthemselvesbyimproperlivelihood.Byorderingaboutthehiredmenwhoworkinthefields,theyinevita­blyarousetheirresentment,and diggingtheearthtoplantseedsaswellasplowinglandareliabletoinjureantsandotherinsects.

One’sdailyrationisnomorethanoneshengofgrain;whocanmakeitstandforahundredevildeeds?Henceanhonestandup­rightmonkisdisgustedwiththecumbersometaskoffarming.Heabandonsitandgoesfarawaywithhispotandbowltositalonein

a quiet forestandtakespleasurein thecompanyof birdsanddeer.Beingawayfromthehubbubofpursuingfame andgain, he culti­vatesthecalmofnirvana.

I f amonkmanagesabusinessto gainprofitfortheSangha,itispermittedbytheVinaya, buthe is notallowedtocultivatelandand injurelivingthings.Nothingismoreharmfulto insectsandmoreobstructivetogooddeedsthanthecultivationofland.The

guiltandwronglivelihoodrelatedtothecultivationoftenqing(oneqingequals6.6666hectares)oflandhavenotbeenenumer­atedinanybooks,butpeoplehaverepeatedly takenthetroubletowastepenandinkinwritingabouttherulesconcerning thethreefaultlessandrightfulrobes.Alas!Icantellthismatteronlytothosewhohavefaith;itisdifficultformetodiscussitwiththosewhoareskepticalbecauseIfearthosewhotransmittheDharmamaystillpersistentlyadheretotheirownviews.

WhenIarrivedatTamraliptiforthefirsttime,Isawasquarefieldoutsidethe monastery.Somelaymensuddenlycametheretofetchvegetables,whichtheydividedintothreeportions,givingoneportiontotheSanghaandtakingtwoawayforthemselves.Ididnotunderstandwhatwasgoingon,andinquiredoftheVen­erableMahayanadlpaabouttheir intention.Hesaidinreply,“Themonksofthismonasteryaremostlyobserversofthedisciplinaryrules.AstheyarenotallowedbytheGreatSagetocultivatelandthemselves,theyrentthelandtoothersandtakeashareof thecropsforfood.”Inthismannertheycouldsustaintheirlivesby

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FascicleTwo

rightlivelihoodwithoutinvolvingthemselveswithworldlycon­nections,asthey werefreefromthefaultof destroyinglivingthingsthroughplowingandirrigatingthefields.Ialsosawabhiksu(mendicant),whowasthedirectorofmonasticaffairs,inspectthewaterfromawelleverymorning.Iftherewasnoinsectinthewater,itwasused.Oncelifewasfoundinit,ithadtobefilteredbeforebeingused.Ialsosawthatwheneveranything,evenassmallasapieceofavegetable,wasgivenbyoutsiders,themonkshadtoaskthepermissionoftheSanghabeforetheymightuseit.Ialsosawthatnocontrollerwasappointedinthemonastery;whenanythinghappened,ameetingwasconvenedtomakeadecision.Ifamonkactedaccordingtohisownwillandmadedecisionsashepleased,ortreatedothersfavorablyorunfa­vorablyregardlessoftheopinionoftheSangha,hewascalleda

kulapati(layman)andexpelledbytheSangha.

I also sawthatwhen the nunshadto goto amonastery,theyhad tomakeanannouncementbeforetheystarted to proceed there.Whenthemonkshadtogotoanunnery,theyhadtomakeaninquirybeforegoingthere.Whenmonkswishedtogooutofthemonastery, theyhadto gooutintwos,andwhen theyhadto gotoalayman’shouseonbusiness,they might,withthepermissionoftheSangha,go inacompanyof four.Ialsosawthatonthefourfastdaysof eachmonth,themonksofthewholemonasteryas­sembledintheeveningto listentoarecitationof thedisciplinaryrules,whichtheyobservedwithdeepdeference.

Ialsowitnessedthefollowingincident:Onceajuniormonk

orderedhisboyattendanttosendtwoshengofricetothewifeofaservantbecauseofthejuniormonk’sillicitrelationswiththewoman.ThismatterwasreportedtotheSangha,andthemonkwassummonedtoanswerquestions.Inthecourseofinterroga­tion,thethreeadmittedtheirmisbehavior.Althoughthejuniormonkdidnotcommittheevilact,hewasashamedofhimself,withdrewhisnamefromthelistofmonks,andwentawayfromthemonasteryforever.Histeacheraskedsomebodytosendhisclothingandotherthingstohim.Suchistheclericallawwhichall

213c

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themonksobserved.Theyneednottakethetroubletogotoasecularcourtofjusticeforasettlement.

Ialsosawthatonceawomancametothemonastery,butshedidnotenterthechambers.Shejustspokewiththemonksinthecorridorforashortmomentandwentaway.IalsosawthatinthemonasterytherewasabhiksubythenameofRahulamitra,whowasthenaboutthirtyyearsold.Hisconductwasunusuallyper­fectandhisfamewashighandfarreaching.Everydayheread

theRatnakuta-sutra,whichconsistedofsevenhundredstanzas.HewaswellversedintheBuddhisttextsoftheTripitaka,andwasthoroughlyconversantwiththosesecularbooks,thefourVedas.Hewashonoredasanelderinthe easternpartofthe Landof Saints.Sincehewasfullyordained,hehadneverspokenfacetofacewithawoman;evenwhenhismotheroreldersistercame,hewouldcomeoutjusttohavealookatthem.WhenIaskedhimwhyhebehavedlikethat,sinceitwasnottheholyteaching,hesaidinreply,Iamamanofmuchcarnalpassionbynature,andif

Ididotherwise,Icouldnotstopitssource.Although[tospeakwithwomen]is notprohibitedbytheHolyOne,whatiswrongifmybehaviorismeanttopreventevildesires?”

Ialsosawthatlearnedmonkswhowerewellversedintheholytextsofanyoneofthethreecollectionswerelodgedinthebestchambersandprovidedwithservantsto waituponthem.Theygavelecturesregularlyandwereexemptedfromroutine monasticduties.Whentheywentout,theymostlyrodeinpalanquins,butneveronhorseback.Ialsosawthatwhenaguestmonkcametothemonasteryforthefirsttime,theSanghawouldprovidehimwithgoodfoodforfivedays,sothathecouldrestandrecoverfromfatigue.Afterthathelivedlikeotherordinarymonks.I f hewasagoodperson,theSanghamightinvitehimtostayandallowhimtospendthesummerretreatthatyearwithasupplyofbedding.Ifhewasnotalearnedman,hewouldbetreatedliketheotherregularmonks.Onlythosewhowerewelllearnedweretreatedwiththearrangementsmentionedabove,withtheirnameswrit­teninthemonasticregisterjustliketheoriginalresidentmonks.

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FascicleTwo

Ialsosawthatwhenamancamewithagoodmind,hewouldbeaskedhispurpose,andi f hecametobecomeamonk, theSanghawouldshavehishair.Hisnamewouldhavenothingmoretodowiththeking’scensusregister,asthe monks kepttheirownreg­istrationbooks.Afterwards,ifheviolatedtheVinayarulesandcommittedmisdeeds,hewouldbeexpelledwiththesoundofaghanta(bell).Thusthemonkswouldexamineeachotherandseeto itthatfaultswerenipped inthebudandnotallowedto growupgraduallyinthecourseoftime.

I should say with a sighthatwhenI was intheDivineLandofChina, Ithoughtof myselfasknowingtheVinayawell,andlittleimaginedthataftercomingheretoIndia,Ishouldhavefoundmy­

selfignorantofthesubject.HadInotcometothewest,howcould2i4a

Ihaveseensuchcorrectrulesandregulations?Someof these rulesarelaiddownbythemonksof themonasteryandsomearespe­cially madefortherectificationof themind, whiletherestare foundintheVinayatexts,whichareimportantforthemaintenanceoftheBuddha’steachingsinthisperiodofthedecayoftheDharma.

Alltheseare the rulesofthe BalahaMonasteryatTamralipti,butatNalandaMonasterytheregulationsarestillstricter.Thusoverthreethousandmonkslivedthere,withafief ofmorethantwohundredvillages,whichwereofferedtothemasalmsbythekingsandmonarchsofsuccessivedynasties.Theuninterruptedprosperityof themonasteryis duetonothingelsebut theobser­vanceoftheVinayarulesbythemonks.

Ihaveneverseen[inIndia]thatasecularofficialwouldsitin

themiddleoftheaudiencehallofhisyamen,whilethemonksstandasideinarow,bullied,slighted,calledandshoutedtojustlikeordinarylaymen.Themonks[inChina]runabout,seldomfeelingtiredontheway,toseeoff aleavingofficialandwelcomethenewone.Iftheimperialinspectordoesnotvisitthemonas­tery,theygo to thegovernmenthouse to seek a livelihood,withoutregardingwhetheritisinthecoldorthehotseason.

Amanbecomesahomelessmonkbecausehewishestofreehim­

selffromworldlyentanglements,soastogiveupthehazardous

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

wayofthefivefearsandfollowthesafethoroughfareof theeight­foldrightpath.Whyshouldonebeagaininvolvedinmundaneaffairsandbecaughtoncemoreinthenetofimmorality?I fso,howcanwefulfillourwishofachievingperfectcalm?Itmaybesaidthatinthatwayweareactingentirelyincontradictiontospiritualemancipationandnotinconcordancewithquietude.Itisonlyreasonablethatweshouldpracticethetwelvedhuta(asceticwaysofliving)andownonlythethirteenarticlesofnecessitytosustainourlivesaccordingtocirc*mstances.Weshouldwashaway

oldhabits,repaythegreatbountyofourteachersandoftheSangha

andourparents,andrequitetheheavenlybeingsandnagas,aswellasthelordsandemperors,fortheirdeepcompassion.InthiswaywemaywellfollowthelawsoftheGuideof Menandbecomerightlyfitforthepathofspiritualcultivationandexhortation.In

the course of discussing thepreservationof life, Ihavementionedactualpractices.I hopemy virtuousreaderswill not feelthatmydiscussionisdullandtedious.

Thedistinctionsbetweenthefourschoolsaremarkedbythewaythemonksweartheirundergarments.ThemonksoftheSarvastivadaSchooldouble-foldtheirundergarmentsoutwardsonbothsides,whilethemonksoftheMahasamghikaSchoolstufftherightpieceoftheundergarmentintotheleftsideandpressitintightly,sothatitwillnotgetloose.Thewomenof Indiainthewestweartheirskirtsinju stthesamewayasthemonksoftheMahasamghikaSchool.ThewaythatthemonksoftheSthaviraandSammitiyaSchoolsweartheirundergarmentsissimilartothatoftheMahasamghikaSchool,exceptthattheyturntheedgeoutwardsandpressittooneside.Themakeofgirdleisalsodifferent.Thenunsweartheirrobesinthesame

mannerasthemonksoftheirrespectiveschools,withnodifferenceatall.

ButtheChinesemonks’samkaksikas(outergarments),whicharewornoveronlyoneshoulder,andtheirsquareskirts,trousers,legsheaths,loosegownswithhugesleeves,andshortjacketsareallcontrarytotheoriginalrules.Notonlydotheirrobeshave

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FascicleTwo

sleevessimilartothoseonlaymen’sclothesandcoverthewholebackclosely,eventheirmannerofwearing themisnotinconcor­dancewiththeVinayarules.Bothwearingandusingsuchgar­mentsareblameworthy.SomeChinese monksattiredinsuchdresscametoIndiainthewest,andthelocalpeoplelaughedatthem.Astheywereashamedofthemselves,theytoretheirclothestopiecesformiscellaneoususe,becauseitisunwarrantedforamonktowearanysuchgarments.IfIkeptsilencewithoutsayingany­thing,peoplewouldnotbeabletoknowaboutit.AlthoughIwishedtospeakoutright,Ifearedthatmyhearerswouldbearresent­menttowardsme.Hence,I triedtoexpressmysuperficial viewsinthiscompositionofmine,butIhesitatedtoproceedorholdback.I

wishthatthewiseoneswillmakeacarefulstudysoastoknow2i4b

abouttheoriginalrulesconcerningclothing.

InIndiathegarmentswornbythelaypeople,officials,andnoblemenofhighercastesconsistofonlytwopiecesoffinewhitecottoncloth,whilethepoorandlow-castepeoplemerelyhaveonepieceofcottoncloth.Thehomelessmonkspossessonlythethreerobesandthesixrequisites,andonlythosewhotakedelightinowningmorethingsusethethirteennecessities.InChinathemonksarenotallowedtoweargarmentswithtwosleevesandawholeback,butthefactisthattheyfollowChinesecustomsandtalkfalselyaboutthingsIndian.

NowIwillgiveabriefdescriptionofthepeopleandtheircos­

tumeinJambudvipaandthevariousislandsontheborderof thesea.FromMahabodhieastwardtoLin-yi,therearemorethantwentycountriesextendingup tothesouthernboundaryofHuan-zhou.I fweproceedtothesouthwest,wereachthesea.Inthenorth,Kasmiraisthelimit,whileintheSouthSeastherearemorethantencountries,includingtheislandofSimhala.Inall

thesecountriesthepeopleweartwopiecesofkambala.(awoolenloincloth),whichisneithercutnorsewnup,withoutagirdle.Itissimplyawidepieceofclothabouttwofathomslong,putaroundthe waistto coverthelowerparts.BeyondIndiaattheedgeofthegreatseaarethecountriesofthePersiansandtheTajiks,where

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ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

thepeoplewearshirtsandtrousers,whileinthecountryofthenaked,thepeoplewearno dressatall,bothmenandwomenbeingstarknaked.FurtherawayfromKasmira,thevariousHupeoples,suchastheTibetansandtheTurksof Suli,dressinroughlythesameway.Theydonotwearkambalas,butusefeltandfur,andhavelittlekaroasa(cotton),whichisusedonlyoccasionally.Asitisacoldregion,shirtsandtrousersareregularlyused.

Amongthesecountries,exceptthoseofthePersians,thena­kedpeople,theTibetans,andthe Turks,wherenoBuddhismwasknownoriginally,allfollowtheBuddha’steachings.Eveninthelandswhereshirtsand trousersareused,thepeopledo notbathethemselvesclean;hencethepeopleofthefivepartsofIndiaareproudoftheirowncleanlinessandsublimity.Butsofarascul­turalpersonality andrefinement,etiquetteinmeetingfriends,theculinaryart,magnanimityof kindness,andrighteousnessare con­cerned,nocountryexcelsChinaintheeast.ThemonksinChina,however,donotpreservethepurityof food,andneitherdotheywashaftergoingtothelatrine,norchewwillowtwigstocleansetheirteeth.Inthesematterstheyaredifferentfromthe westernregions.SomemonksholdthatitisfaultlesstowearimpropergarmentsandquoteapassagefromtheSamksipta-sasana-vinaya-sutrawhichsays,“Whatisconsideredimpureinthisplace,m ayberegardedaspureinotherplaces,whereitmaybepracticedwithoutfault.”Thispassageismistranslatedandthecorrectmean­

ingisnotso,asIhavepointedoutelsewhere.

ForabhiksuinChina,garmentsotherthanthethreerobesarenotallowablebythesacredrules.Sinceitisfaultytoputonextragarments,itisreasonablenottousethem.Inawarmcoun­trylikeIndiaonemayuseonlyoneunlinedgarmentthroughalltheseasonsoftheyear,butinacoldcountrywithsnowyhills,howcouldoneliveinhealthifonewishedtodiscard[warmclothes]?ItisthesincerewordoftheBuddhathatweshouldkeepourbodyineaseandourworkinprogress,whiletheprac­ticeofself-tortureandimmoderateexertionistheteachingofheretics.Nowwhatshouldwetakeorreject?

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FascicleTwo

TheBuddhapermittedtheuseoftherepagarment,whichiscommonlywornincoldcountriesandissufficienttokeepthebody

warm.Howcanitbesaidtobeahindrancetothepracticeofthe2i4cWay?TheSanskritwordrepamaybeinterpretedas“abdomencoveringcloth.”Iwillgiveabriefdescriptionofhowitismade.

Cutapieceof clothsoastomakeitwithoutaback,leavingoneshoulderbare.Nosleeveisattachedtooneside.Itisonlyonepieceof cloth,justbigenoughto puton.Theshouldersleeve,whichisnotwide,isontheleftside,anditisnotfittingtomakeitwideandlarge.Itistiedupontherightsidewithstringssothatnowindwillwaftintothegarment.Itmaybestuffedwithalargequantityofcottonwooltomakeitthickandwarm.Sometimestherightsideofthissortofunderwearissewnrightuptothearmpit,sothatithastobeslippedonoverthehead.Suchistheproperwayofmakingthisgarment whichIhaveseeninthewest.MostofthemonkscomingfromtheHuregionsbroughtalongandworethis kindofgarment,butIneversawsuchclothesatNalanda,becauseitisinahotcountry wherethepeopledonotusethem.Fromthiswemayknowthatmonksareallowedtowearthiskindofgarmentincoldcountries.Theoldclothes,whicharebareattheback,originallyfollowedtheexampleofthisgarment.Butanextrapieceof clothaddedtotherightsidemakesthegarmentloseitsformerstyle.Ifonedoesnotmakeagarmentaccordingtotheestablishedrules,oneissuretocommit

anoffenseagainsttheDharma.

Asregardstherepagarment,itisforwrappingtheabdomentoprotectitintheseverecoldseason,whilethethickmantlewhichiswornoverthewholebodyiswarmenoughtopreventfrostbite.WhenworshipingtheBuddha’simageinashrinehall,orinthepresenceofaseniormonk,oneshouldalwayskeeponeshoulderbare;tocoveritincursguilt.Asitisforthesakeofgettingridofencumbrancesthatonebecomesahomelessmonk,andmoreover,asacharcoalfireisalwayskeptburninginthelivingquartersduringthewinterseason,thereisnoneedforamonktoputonsuperfluousclothes.Incaseofillness,whenitisnecessarytowear

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moreclothes,onemaydosoatone’sowndiscretion,butoneshouldnotactagainsttherules.

InChina,however,theseverecoldmaypiercethebody,andifonedidnotputonwarmclothes,onewouldcertainlydieofener­vation.Sinceweareallalikeinvolvedinsuffering,itisreasonabletoextendsalvationtoallpeople.Thesquareskirtandtherobethatleavesoneshoulderbare distinguishamonkfromalayman,buttherepagarmentistobewornonlytemporarilyduringthecoldseasonofwinter.Fromthiswemayknowthatitwasnotoriginallydesignedformonkstowear,butthatforthesakeofprotectingourliveswearepermittedtouseit,asthewheelsof acartneedoiling.Weshouldfeeldeepshameatbeingobligedtodoso,and thebestthingisnottowearit.Otherclothes,suchas loosegowns,legsheaths,trousers,andshirtsshouldbynomeansbeallowedforregularuse.Assoonastheseverecoldseasonisover,itisnotfittingtowrap thewholebodyinsuchclothes.Oneshouldchangethemforarobethatleavesoneshoulderuncovered,asitisactuallynotpermissibleforamonktowearthem.Inthiswaywemaygetthegistandberidofthesuperfluitiesof thematter,actingaccordingtothetrueteachingsoftheBuddha.Onemayactfreelyonlyforoneself;i foneteachesinthatway,Ifearonewillmisleadothers.

Ifwecouldchange theoldcourseandstrike outona newpath,wemightthencontinuetheline[leftbyBodhidharma]atShao-shiMountainandbeasloftyasVulturePeak.Wemightsitsidebyside[withthesages]inthecityofRajagrhaandtransmittheDharmatothecountryoftheEmperorsothatwemightprotectittogether.ThustheYellowRivermightmingleitspurewaterwiththeLakeofMucilinda.Theslender-leavedwillowwouldshinesi­multaneouslywiththebodhitree,whichwouldthriveuntilthefieldofmulberrytreeschanges[intothesea].Theglorywouldlastuntilthe kalpa-stoneiscompletelywipedaway.Howmarvelousitwouldbe!Letusstrivetoattainthisgoal!

ButnowtheSunoftheBuddhahassunkandonlyhisteach­ingisleftbehindinthisperiodoftermination.Ifwepracticehis

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teaching,it isjustas if weare living in the presence ofthe GreatTeacher,butif we actagainsthisteaching, various faultswill beperpetrated.TheBuddha, therefore,said inasutra,“If mypre­ceptsarefollowed,itshallbejustasifIamlivingmthisworld.

Someonemaysaythatsincethevirtuouspeopleofolddidnot

sayanythingaboutsuchthings,whyshouldwe,menofalater

time,changetheconvention?Itisnotcorrecttosayso.Foritis2i5a

theDharma,andnotanyman,uponwhichwedepend;thispointhasbeenextensivelyexpounded intheBuddha’sdoctrine.ResearchintotheVinayatextswillshowthatmonksmaytakeonlysueclothingandfoodasarenottaintedbyviolationsoftheprecepts.Itisnothardtoknowathing,buttopracticeitisdifficult.Ifamanfailstopracticewhathehaslearned,whyshouldtheteacher

beblamed?

Letmerepeatit:

Foralllivingbeings,

Foodandclothingaremostimportant.Theyarethe cangueandshacklesKeepingusinthefieldofrebirth.

By followingtheholywordandrules,Onemaygetfreedomfromtheworld.Toactinone’sownway

Involvestroubleandfaults.

Letthewisem*nknowRetributionisinstant.

Oneshouldbeunstainedlikejadeinmire

Ora lotusgrowingout ofmuddywater.Whentheeightairshaveleftthebody,Thefivefearsgivenomoretrouble.

Clothingis only forcoveringthebody;Foodismerelyforsustaininglife.

Fixyourmindonattainingemancipation,

Neverwish to be rebornas amanora god.Practiceausteritiestotheendof life;

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Spendyouryearssavingalllivingbeings.

Giveuptheunrealityoftheninehappyabodes;Aspiretotheperfectionandfirmnessofthetenstages.

Trytobequalifiedtoreceivealmsfitforthefivehundredarhats

Andcompetenttogivebenefitandwelfaretothethreethousandworlds.

11.HowtoWeartheRobes

NowIwillgiveadescription,accordingtotheVinaya,abouthowtowearthethreerobesandmakeloopsandfasteners.Takeareligiousrobethatisfivecubitslong,andfolditintothreelay­ers.Apatchof clothaboutfivefinger-widthssquareis fixedatthepleatontheshoulderaboutfourorfivefinger-widths withintheborder oftherobe.Thefoursidesofthepatcharestitchedontherobe.Asmallholeismadewithanawlinthecentertofixtheloop,whichismadeofsilkbraidorapieceofsilkclothandisaboutthesizeoftheloopsofanordinaryshirt.Itistwofingerslong,tiedintoaloveknot.Theremaindershouldbecutoff.Oneendoftheloopisthenputintotheholeanddrawnouttotheothersideoftherobe.Itispulledbackcrosswisetoformtwoloops.Theinnerpartofthefastenerisatthepleatedpartoftherobeinfrontofthechest.Thefastenersattheborderoftherobearefixedinthesamewayasthosefixedonashirt.Suchisthemethodof fixingfastenersonarobe.Thisisonlyaroughdescrip­tionwhichIamsubmittingtomyreadersforthetimebeing.Ifonewishestoknowtheactualmethodindetail,onehastolearnaboutitfacetofacefromateacher.Loopsandfastenersarealsofixedatthelowerpartoftherobe.AsthemonksarepermittedbytheBuddhatoweartheirrobesupsidedownatwill,aloopandafastenerarefixedseparatelyatthetwolowercorners,abouteightfinger-widthsfromtheborderoftherobe.Monksarerequired,at

mealtime,tofastenthereverselyfoldedcornerstogetherbeforethechest.Thisisanessentialpoint.

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Whenoneisinamonasteryorinthepresenceof anassemblyof monks,onemustnotusethestringsandfasteners,orcoverbothshoulderswiththerobe.Butwhenoneisgoingoutofthemonas­teryorenteringalayman’shouse,onemusttieupthefasteners.Atothertimesonemayjustcovertheshoulders.Whenoneisinseclusionorperformingmonasticduties,onemayputontherobeinsideoutatwill.ButinthehonoredpresenceofanimageoftheBuddha,onemustdressproperlyandtidily,puttingtherightcor­nerof therobe looselyovertheleftshouldersothatithangsbehindthebackwithoutfallingonthearm.Ifone wishes to usethefasten­ings,oneshouldcoverbothshoulderswiththerobeandthenturnthefasteningsinsidetofallinbackoftheshoulder;onemustnotlet

themgetloose.Whenthecornerisputovertheshoulder,therobe2i5bmaygoroundtheneck,andbothone’shandsmaycomeoutbeneath

therobewiththecornerhanginginfront.AlovelystatueofKingAsoka,depictinghiminaprocessionwithanumbrellaoverhim,isdressedinthismanner.ThisisthewaytoweartheupperrobeinanorderlymanneraccordingtotheteachingoftheBuddha.

Theumbrellamaybewovenoutofslenderbamboosticks,asthinasabamboovesselofonlyonelayer.Thesizemaybetwoorthreefeetindiameteratone’soption.Thecenterismadedoublythicktoholdthehandle,thelengthofwhichisinproportiontothecircumferenceof thecover.Thecoveroftheumbrellamaybepainted withathinlayerof lacquer.Itmayalso bewovenof reed.If paperispastedinsidethecover,inthewaythatrattanhatsandthelikearemanufactured,itismadestrong.

AlthoughumbrellashavenotbeenusedinChinabefore,itis

desirable tomakethem.Inasuddenshower, itprotectsour robesfromgettingwet,andintheheatoftheblazingsun,itkeepsuscoolunderitsshade.TouseanumbrellaisinconcordancewiththeVinayaas wellas beneficial to ourbodies,andthereis noharminholdingone.Manyof thenecessarythingswehavediscussedherehavenotbeenusedinChinabefore.

Onecornerofthekasayahangsinfrontlikethetrunkofan

elephant.AllIndianmonkswhocametoChinaworetherobein

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thisfashion,becausefinesilk isso smooththatarobemadeof itisliabletoslipdowntheshoulder.Thusthecorrectwayofdressingwasreplacedbyawrong manner.Afterwards,whentheTripitakamasteroftheTang dynasty(VenerableXuanzang)camebackfromIndia,heintroducedwearingtherobewithonecornerhangingovertheshoulder,butmanyoftheelderlymonksstilldislikedit.Abiastowardspersistenceinoldpracticesexistseverywhere.

Withregardtothethreerobes,if shortfasteningsarefixedontheminsteadof longribbons,itisnotconsideredafault.Wearingawholepieceofclothsidewaysasaskirtwithoutawaistpiecewillsaveonethetroubleofsewingandstitching.Thewaterpot,thealmsbowl,andallotherbelongingsshouldbehungontheshouldersjustbelowthearmpitssothatthestringswillnotinter­twine.Thestringsshouldnotbetoo long,justlongenoughtohangtheobjectsovertheshoulders.Ifthestringscrossedbeforethechest,theywouldcauseonetopantforbreath.Onemustnotdoso,asitisnottheoriginalwayofcarryingthings.Ishalltalkaboutthebagforcarryingthealmsbowllater.

Thepeopleof Suliand otherplacesinthe northoftencarrythingscrossingoneanother.Thisisaregionalmodificationandwas nota rule laiddownbytheBuddha.I f onehasanextrarobe,onemayfirstputitlengthwiseoveroneshoulderandthencover

bothshouldersovertherobeoneiswearingandthealmsbowloneiscarrying.

Whengoingtoamonasteryorrepairingtoalayman’shouse,onemustgointothepremisestoputdowntheumbrella,andthenuntiethestringstohangupone’s[extra]robeandalmsbowl.Thewallbeforeahouseisusuallyfixedwithivoryhangers,sothatvisitorswillnotbeinwantof aplacetohangtheirthings.OtherrelevantmatterswillberelatedinChapterTwenty-sixonhowtomeetanoldacquaintance.

Asakasayamadeofthinsilkisveryslippery,itcannoteasilystayontheshoulder,andwhenoneisworshipinganimageof theBuddha,itoftenfallstotheground.So itisbetterto usesomelesssmoothstuff,suchasroughsilkorfinecottoncloth.Asregards

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thesamkaksika,i.e.,theside-coveringgarment,itshouldbemorethanonecubitlonginordertocomplywiththeoriginalrules.Thenwearingthiskindofgarment,therightshoulderisbareandonlytheleftoneiscovered.Inthechamberonealwayswearsthisgarmentandaskirt,butwhengoingouttosalutehonoredones,onehastoputonotherrobesinaddition.

Asforhowtoweartheskirt,Iwilljustgiveabriefaccount.

Accordingtotherulesformakingaskirtadoptedbythe2i5cSarvastivadaSchool,theskirtisapieceoffinesilkorcottoncloth,

asthecasemaybe,fivecubitsacross by two cubits long.InIndiaitismadeunlined,whileinChinaitmaybelinedasonepleases,andthe lengthandwidthareas desired.Afterhavingput itaround[thelowerpartof]thebody,youpull itupto coverthenavel.Holdtheuppercorneroftheleftflapoftheskirtwithyourrighthand,andpull itfromtheinsideto reachtherightsideofthewaist.Theleftflapoftheupperrobeistakentocovertheleftside.(Yijin g’srunningnote:Therightflapistheoneneartherighthand;theleftflap,theonenearthelefthand.)Raisebothendsoftheskirttomakethemevenandtwistthemrightinthemiddleintothreefolds.Thenpressthemwithbothhandsintothewaistwithallthreefoldsturnedbackand twistedbeneath.Thetwocornersareraisedthreefingershigherand insertedinwardsaboutthreefingersdowntotheskirtit*elf.Whentheskirtisworninthismanner,itwillsticktothebodyandwillnotfalloff evenif itisnottiedwithabelt.Thenhookupthemiddleoftheskirtwithawaistbandaboutfivecubitslong,andraiseitupbelowthenavel.Bindtheskirtattheupperedgeandstretchittothebackindoublelayerswhicharefoldedoneupontheotheranddrawntothefrontattheleftandrightsides.Holdbothendsoftheband,oneineachhand,andpressthemfastonbothsides.Thenbindthe waistthreetimeswiththetwo endsof theband.If itistoo long,cutit*hort,andi f itisnotlongenough,addsomemoretoit.Theendsofthebandshouldnotbestitchedoradorned.Thisistheall-roundwayof

wearingtheskirt,[knowninSanskritasparimandala-nivasa,

translatedintoChineseastheall-roundwayofwearingtheskirt]

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whichis thedistinctivemarkof theSarvastivadaSchool.The widthofthewaistbandis aboutthatof a finger.Asregardsthebootlace,thegarter,and thelike,theymaybesquareorround.Itisharm­lesstousethemdoubledup,buttousesuchathingashempenstringisnotallowedbytheVinayatexts.

Whenonesits ina small chair,or ona blockof wood,oneshouldholdupthelowercornersoftheskirtandpresstheedgeoftheskirtunderthethighswithaquickmovement justtocovertheknees.Itisharmlesstoleavetheshinsuncovered.Theupperpartoftheskirtshouldcoverthenavel,andthelowerpartshouldreachthepointfourfingersabovetheankles.Suchisthemannerofwearingtheskirtinalayman’shouse,butinamonasteryitisallowabletocoverjusttheupperpartoftheshins.TheselimitswerefixedbytheBuddha,andnooneshouldalterthematwill.ShouldonepurposelyactagainsttheBuddha’steachingstosat­isfyone’shumanfancies?I ftheskirtonewearsissolongastotrailontheground,onewouldspoilthepuregiftpresentedbyadevoteeontheonehand,andontheotherhand,woulddisregardthemaximsoftheGreatTeacher.Myremonstranceissincere,butwhowilllistentome?Ihopethatoutof tenthousandmonks,oneortwomaypayattentiontomywords.

InIndiatheskirtisworncrosswiseroundthebody.Thewhitecottonclothof Indiaistwocubitswide,andasitisonlyh a lfthewidthrequiredformakingaskirt,itisdifficultforapoormantoobtainabiggerpiece.Hehastojoinandsewto­getherthetwoedgesoftheclothandcutopentheinsidetomeethisrequirement.TherulesforwearinggarmentsarerecordedintheVinayatexts;Ihaveonlygivenabriefdescriptionofthees­sentialsofthematter.Nodetailedexplanationcanbegivenun­lessweholdaface-to-facediscussion.

Furthermore,allthegarmentsofahomelessmonkmaybedyedinthecolorofgandha(myrrh),oroftheyellowdustofgluti­nousrehmannia,vitex,philodendron,etc.Thesestuffsshouldbemixedwithwaterin whichredearthorredstonegrains havebeenground.Oneshouldmakethecolorneithertoodeepnortoolight,

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ju st tothepointofmeetingtherequirementwithouttakingtoomuchtrouble.Oronemayjustusethecoreofthesourjujubetree,orsimplyredearthandredstonegrains,orbirchleaf pearandearth-purple.Asthecoloroncedyedwilllasttillthegar­mentiswornout,whyshouldonetrytogetany more kindsofdyestuffs?Thebarkofthemulberrytreeandblueandgreencol­orsareprohibited,whiletruepurpleandbrowncolorsarenot

usedinthewest.

Asregardsshoesandsandals,therearespecialinstructions.Bootsandthread-knittedshoesarecompletelybannedasillegal.Embroideryandornamentsare notallowed bythe Buddha,as isfullyexplainedinthe“RulesaboutLeather.”

12.TheRobesandFuneralRitesofa

Bhiksuni

InChinathebhiksunls(Buddhistnuns)dresslikelaywomen,andtheirclothesaremostlycontrarytotherules.AccordingtotheVinaya,abhiksunipossessesfivegarments,namely,(1)the

samghdti,(2)theuttardsahga,(3)theantarvdsa,(4)the

samkaksikd,and(5)askirt.Thestyleofthefirstfourgarmentsisnotdissimilartothosewornbyamonk,butanun ’sskirtisdifferent.ItisknownaskusulakainSanskrit,meaningasilo­shapedskirtbecauseitissewnatbothsidesintheshapeofasmallsilo.Itisfourcubitslongandtwocubitswide.Itmaycoverupthenaveland reachdowntofourfingersabovetheankles.Toweartheskirt,onestepsintoit,pullsituptocoverthenavel,andthencontractsthetopoftheskirtonbothsidesandtiesitupwithadoublebandintheback.Thewayoftyingthebandismoreorlessthesameasthatofmonks.

Betweenthechestandthearmpits[ofabhiksuni],nobreast

covershouldbe tied.Buti f she is inheryouthor inoldage,whenherbreastsrisehighorbecomeflaccid,shemaywearonewith­outfault.Whyshouldoneputhertoshame,sayingthatshedoes

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not know the rules and regulations? Free use ofornamentsis blame­worthyatthemomentofputtingthemonortaking themoff.Atthetimeofdeath,shewillhaveevileffectsfallinguponherlikedrizzlingrain.Ifonehascommittedanoffenseonlyonceoutofmanytimes,oneshouldstillmakeatimelyrepentance.

Whengoingout,orinthepresenceofmonks,oronbeinginvited

toacceptamealatalayman’shouse,anunshouldputherkasaya

roundhernecktocoverherbody,andshouldnotuntiethestringsattheshoulders.Sheshouldnotexposeherchest,andherhandsshouldbethrustoutfromunderherrobetotakethefood.Asamkaksikawhichcoversonlyoneshoulder,andshirtsandtrou­

sers,areprohibitedbytheGreatSage;theyareunfitforanuntowear.

InthecountriesoftheSouthSeas,thenunshaveaspecialgarment.Itis also calledsamkaksika,thoughnotthesameinstyleasinIndia.Itistwocubitslongandtwocubitswide.Theedgesofitaresewntogether,leavingaboutonefootnotsewninthecen­ter,andtheuppercornersarecutoneinchopen.Towearthisgarment,oneholdsitup,putsone’sheadandshouldersthroughthehole,andthenpullsone’srightshoulderoutofit.Ithasno

waistband;it coversone’ssides,breasts,and navel;andit reachesbelowtheknees.Ifone wishestowearthisgarment,itisharmlesstodoso.Ithasonlytwofastenings,andisgoodenoughtoconceal

shame.Ifonedoesnotliketowearit,onemaywearthesamkaksika

216bwornbymonks.Inthechambersof anunnery,itisadequateforanuntowearonlyakusulakaandasamkaksika.(Yijin g’srunningnote.IexaminedtheSanskrittextsanddidnotcomeacrossthename“shou lder-coveringg a r m e n t ,”w h ichisactua llythesamkaksika.ThisistheoriginalfortheChinesetransliteration

qi-zhi.Itis notcalleda“skirt”inChinese;perhapsthetranslatorsuseddifferentterms.)Oneshouldrejectagarmentwhichisagainst

therulesandwearonewhichismadeincompliancewiththeBuddha’steaching.

Makingasamkaksikarequiresa fullwidthandahalfof silk orsomecottonclothfourorfivecubitsinlength.Thewayofwearingit

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istoputitovertheshouldersinreverse,justasonewearstherobeoffivestripes.Whengoingouttoplacesotherthanoneschamber,oneshouldbewellcovered.Eveninthelatrine,itisimpropertoleavetheshouldersbare.Inthespring andsummerseasonsonemayusethisgarmenttocoverthebody,whileintheautumnandwinterseasons,onemayoptionallyputon

warmerclothes.

Bybeggingforfoodwithanalmsbowl,anunmaysufficientlymaintainherself.Althoughshe isawoman,shehastheloftyaspi­rationsofaman.Whyshouldshealwaysbusyherselfwiththeshuttleandloomanddo miscellaneousworktomakeherself manygarments,no lessthanfiveorten?Somenunsneverpayattentiontomeditationortherecitationofscriptures,beingalwaysdrivenbythevexationsofanemotionaltemperament.Theydeckthem­selveswithornamentslikelaywomen,payingnoregardtothetextsonprecepts.Itbefitsalldisciplestooverseeandcheckononeanotherabouttheirbehavior.

InIndianoneofthenunsactinsuchaway.Allofthemget

their sustenancebybeggingforfoodandliveapoorandsimplelife.Butthe nuns[inChina]rarely haveanybeneficialsupport.Thenunneriesin whichtheyabidearemostlydevoidof acommu­nitysupplyof food,andiftheydidnottrytoearnalivelihoodaccording tocirc*mstances,theywouldhavenowayto keepthem­selvesalive.Iftheydoso,theyareliabletoactcontrarytotheteachingsof theVinayaandgoagainsttheBuddhas mind.Canthey makeacompromiseandgetoutof thedilemma?Itissaidthatwhenthebody isatease,theWaywill flourish.Butcanwehearmoreaboutitindetail?

InreplyIwouldsaythatone’soriginalobjectinbecoming

homelesswastogainemancipation,soastoextirpatethenox­iousrootsofthethreetrees[ofgreed,hatred,andstupidity]andtosuppressthefloodofthefourtorrents[of desire,con­tinualexistence,erroneousviews,andignorance].Oneshouldfollowthepracticeofausterityandkeepoffthewrongpathsofsufferingandenjoyment.Oneshouldstrivehardtokeepones

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desiresto aminimum,andpursuethetruepathof quietude.Whenoneobservesthepreceptsdayandnight,theWaywillgetonintheworld.Howcanonethinkthatitisreasonabletomaintainthebody inease? I f onecanabidebytheVinayarulesanddifferentiatetruthfromfalsehood,onewillnaturallyberespectedbydrag­ons,spirits,andheavenlyandhumanbeings.Whyshouldoneworryaboutone’slivelihoodandtoilwithoutpurpose?Thefiverobes,apot,andanalmsbowlareenoughforanuntosubsistupon,andasmallcellissufficientforhertolivein.Whenonesimplifiespersonalmattersandsparesone’sdisciplesthetroubleofattendance,onewillbelikeapieceofjadelyingundefiledinmire,ora purelotusflowergrowingoutofmuddywater.Althoughsuchanunmaybeapersonof lowrank,her wisdomisreallyequaltothatofasuperiorpersonality.

Uponthedeathoftheirparents,[Chinese]monksandnunsperformritesandceremoniesunscrupulously,ortheymournoverthedeadasthebereavedchildrenofalayfamilywoulddo,orarrangesmallmourningtablesintheirroomstomakeofferingstothedeceased,orwearapieceofdark-coloredclothincontradictiontoregulations,orkeeptheirhairlongagainsttherules,orholdawailingstick,orsleeponastrawmatinamourninghut.All thesepracticesarenottaughtbytheBuddha,andtheymaywellbeomittedwithoutcommittingafault.Whatoneshoulddo,onac­countofthedeceased,istocleananddecoratearoominwhichcanopiesandcurtainsmaybetemporarilyfixedupforonetore­citethescripturesandmeditateontheBuddhawhileofferingin­censeandflowers,sothatthesoulsofthedeadmayberebornina

2i6cgoodplace.Thisisthewayforafilialoffspringtorequitethekind­nessofthedeceased.Whyshouldoneliveinmourningforthreeyearstoshowoffone’svirtue,andfastforsevendaysasawayofrepayingthekindnessofone’sdeadparents?Theseactionswillsimplyrebindthedeadtoearthlytroublestosuffermorechainsandfettersandpassfromonedarkplacetoanother withoutknow­ingthetwelvelinksofthechainofcausalityinthethreedivisions.

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Ifoneproceedsfromdeathtodeath,howcanonerealizethetenstagesofperfectachievement?

AccordingtotheteachingsoftheBuddha,whenabhiksuis

deadandhisdeath hasbeenascertained, thecorpseiscarriedtoacrematoriumonthesamedayandcrematedsoonafterwards.Inthecourseof thecremation,hisrelativesandacquaintancesgathertogetherandsitatonesideonbundlesof straw,oronaheapofearth,oronbricksandstones.Acompetentmonkisaskedtore­citefromtheAnitya-sutra,atextonimpermanence,aslittleashalfapageoronepage,sothatitwill not be tediousandtiresome.(Yijing’srunningnote:Thistexthasbeencopiedandsenthomeseparately.)Thenallofthemmeditateontheimpermanentna­tureof allthings,andafterthattheyreturntotheirabodes.Inapondoutsidethemonastery,theybathethemselveswiththeirclotheson.I fthereisnopond,theymaywashnearawell.Theywearoldgarments,so as nottospoilnewones.Thentheychangeintodryclothesandreturntotheirchambers.Thegroundispurifiedbythesmearingofcow’sdung,andallotherthingsre­mainasusual.Notabitoftheirdressischanged[fortheocca­sion],Sometimessariras(ashes)arecollected,andastupa(atumulus)isbuilt.Itisknownasakula(amound)andisintheshapeofasmallpagoda,butwithoutthewheelsignonthetop.

ThepagodaforanordinarypersonandthatforaHolyOneare

different,asisfullydescribedintheVinayatexts.HowcanweagreetodiscardtheholyteachingsofSakyamuni,theFather,andpursuethesecularburialritestaughtbytheDukeof Zhou,wail­ingforseveralmonthsandwearingmourningapparelforthreeyears?IheardthattherewasaVenerableLingyu,whonever per­formedafuneralservice,nordidheputonmourningdress.Inmemoryof thedeceased,hecultivatedmeritoriousdeedsontheirbehalf.SomeofthemonksinthecapitalandatLuo-yangalsofollowedhisexample.Peoplemaythinkthathewasunfilialtobehaveso,buttheydonotknowthathisactionwasmoreincon­cordancewiththegistoftheVinaya.

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13.ThePurificationofaSite

Therearefivemethodsofpurifyingthegroundofasite;namely,

(1)purificationthroughmentalaction,(2)purificationthroughcommonconsent,(3)aplaceresemblingacowlyingdown,(4)anolddesertedplace,and(5)purificationthroughtheassentof theassemblyofmonks.

Purificationthroughmentalactionindicatesthatwhenthefoundationstonehasbeenlaidfortheconstructionofamonas­tery,thesupervisingbhiksushouldthinkthus,“Atthisspotinthemonastery,orinthehouse,apurekitchenshouldbebuiltforthecommunityof monks.”

Commonconsentmeansthatwhenthefoundationstoneofamonasteryhasbeenlaidinthepresenceof,say,threemonks,oneofthemshouldsaytotheothertwo,“Brethren,letusfixourat­tentiontomarkoutthisplaceinthemonastery,orinthehouse,fortheconstructionofapurekitchenforthecommunityofmonks.”

2i7aThesecondandthethirdmonksshouldalsorepeatthesame.

Theplaceresemblingacowlyingdownmeansthatthebuild­ingsofthemonasterybeingerectedareintheshapeof acow lyingontheground,withthedoorsofthechambersopenedatrandomwithoutafixedplan.Eveni f noriteshavebeenperformedforitspurification,suchaplaceisconsideredpurebyitself.

Anolddesertedplacedenotesaplacewhichhaslongbeenabandonedand forsakenbythemonks.I ftheycomeback,assoonastheyreachthesite,itisregardedaspure.Buttheycannotspendanightthereunlessaceremonyhasbeenperformed.

Purificationthroughthe assentofthe assemblyofmonksmeansthatapprovaloftheboundariesof asiteforbuildingamonasteryisgivenbytheassemblyofmonks afterduediscussionof a proposalsubmittedtothemforconsideration.ThedetailsarerelatedintheMulasarvastivada-nikaya-ekasata-karman.

Onceoneofthesefiveriteshasbeenperformed,theBuddhasaid,“Thiswillenableallbhiksustohavethedoubleabilitytocookfoodwithinandstoreitoutsideoftheboundaries,ortocook

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foodoutsideofandstoreitwithinthelimits,bothbeingwith­outfault.”

WhenIexamined theritesofpurificationofthemonksofthefourschools,witnessedtheactualpracticeatthepresenttime,andmadeacarefulstudyofthepurportoftheVinaya,Ifoundthatthemethodofpurificationwasroughlythesameaswhathasbeendescribedabove.I fmonksdrink,eat,andlodgeto­getherataplacebeforeithasbeenpurified,theycommitanoffenseofcookingandlodging[atanimproperplace].Onceithasbeenpurified,theymaydrink,eat,andlodgetogetherinthelimitswithoutcommittingtheoffenseofcookingandlodging

[atanimproperplace].

Whenwe say amonastery,weimplythatthewholemonasticresidenceisapure kitchen.Ineverychamber rawandcookedfoodmaybestored.I f amonkisnotallowedtospendthenightinsideamonastery,canwedrivehimouttostay outsideover­night?First,monksdo notpreserveberthsforthemselves,andsecondly,keepingprovisionsinthemonasteryis permissible.Itisthe traditionof Indiatopurifyanddemarcatethewholemonas­teryas akitchen, butto useapartof itas akitchenisalsoper­mittedbythe Vinaya.TheseviewsarenotthesameasthoseoftheVinayamastersinChina.

Ifamonkstaysawayfromthemonasteryforanight,with­

outhavingpurifiedandmarkedoutaspotto keephisrobes,heisblameworthy.Ifthespothasalreadybeenpurifiedandmarkedout bytheassemblyof monks,hemayleavehismonasterytospendthenighttherewithoutcommittingafault.Thesameisthecasewiththepurekitchen.SincesuchisallowedbytheBuddha,wemustnotsticktoourownworldlyopinions.Thedemarcationof aspotforsafekeepingofone’srobesisfixedindifferentways,de­pendingonwhetheritisunderatreeorinsomeotherplace.Itisjustaboundaryofprotection,andisnotmeanttoguardagainstwomen.Ifa[female]servantcomesintothekitchen,shallwedeemitavillage?Whenonecarriesonesrobesatthetimeofgoingtoavillage,itisnotmeanttoguardoneselfa*gainstwomen.

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Whenthekarmadana(directorofduties)goesroundtosupervisemonasticaffairsandcarrieshisrobeswithhim,itisreallytooburdensomeforhim.

14.TheSummerRetreatoftheFiveGroups

The firstsummerretreatstartsonthefirst day of thedarkhalfofthefifthmoon,andthesecondsummer retreatbeginsonthe firstdayof thedarkhalfofthesixthmoon.Thesummerretreatmaybecommencedonlyonthesetwodays;no otherdatebetweenthemisfixedasthedaytobegintheretreatintheVinayatexts.Thefirstsummer retreatconcludesinthemiddleof theeighthmoon,whilethesecondterminatesinthemiddleof theninthmoon.Ontheday whentheretreatisdrawingto itsend,bothmonksandlaymenperformagrandceremonyof alms-giving.Themonthaf­terthemiddleoftheeighthmooniscalledKarttika(October-November).WhenaKarttikacongregationisheldsouthof theYangziRiverinChina,thisisjustthetimetoconcludethefirst

2i7bsummerretreat.Thesixteenthdayoftheeighthmoonisthedaytodistributethekathina(inflexible)robes,ortherobesofmerit,asofferingstothemonks.Thisisanancienttradition.

ItissaidinaVinayatextthatduringthesummerretreatamonkmaytakeleavewithagoodreasontogooutofthemonas­teryforoneormoredaysasheisinvited.I fwhatheisdoingcanbedoneinonenight,hemustaskforpermissionforoneday’sabsence,uptosevendaysforgoinginresponsetodifferentinvita­tions.Ifanotheroccasionarisesforhimtogoout,theVinayapre­scribesthatheshouldapplyforpermissionagain.Shouldtheabsenceexceedsevendays,sayeightdays,orevenuptofortynights,heshouldapplyforpermissionfromthegeneralassemblyofmonks.Havingreceivedtheirunanimouspermission,hemaygooutforeightormoredays,butheshouldnotstayoutforhalfofthesummerretreat.Thusleaveisforfortynightsatthemost.Whenasickpersonorsometroublesomematterrequireshimtogooutofthemonasterytosomeotherplace,hemaydosowithout

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beingregardedasbreakingthesummerretreat,thoughhehasnotobtainedpermissionbeforehand.

Whenthefivegroupsofthehomelessdiscipleshavesettleddown

forthesummerretreat,if a memberofthelowergradehasoccasionforgoingout,heorshemayaskanothermembertoapplyforper­missioninhisorherstead.Beforethecommencementofthesum­merretreat,roomsarepreassignedtothemonks,thebetterroomsbeingallottedtotheelderones;thusalltheroomsaredistributedinorderof senioritytothelastperson.Suchrulesarestill practicedinNalandaMonastery.Thegreatassemblyofmonksassignsroomsevery year;thisiswhattheWorld-honoredOnehastaughtustodowithgreatbenefit.Firstly,itmayeliminatetheconceptofegoism,andsecondly,themonasticroomsaregenerallylookedafterbyallmonks.Allhomelessmonksshoulddoso.

ThemonasteriessouthoftheYangziRiverinChinasome­

timesassignroomstomonks.Thisisatraditionhandeddownbytheancients,anditisstillpracticedatthepresent.Howcanonetakeamonasteryasone’sownproperty,ju stbecauseoneisliv­inginit,withoutregardingwhethersuchanactionispermis­sibleornot,tilltheendofone’slife?ItwasbecausepeopleofformergenerationsdidnotobservetherightconventionsthatmenofsubsequentageslostsightoftheDharma.I ftheassign­mentof roomsisproperlydoneaccordingtotheteachingsof theVinaya,itwillgiveusgreatbenefit.

15.TheCeremonyofConfession

Thelastdayof thesummerretreat,whichisalsotheendoftheyear,shouldbenamedpravârana(thedayoneisfreefromre­straint),whenthemonksarefreetoexposethemisconductof oneanotheronthethreebases[ofhavingwitnessed,havingheardabout,orhavingasuspicionofthemisdeed],withtheintention

ofabsolvingothersfromguilt.Thewordwasformerlytranslatedaszi-zi(self-releasefromrestraint)accordingtoitsimplication.

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Onthenightofthefourteenthday,ateacherwellversedinscripturesmustbeinvitedtomountahighseattoreciteaBuddhistscripture,whilelaydevoteesandmonksgathertogetherlikecloudsandmist,withlampsburningcontinuallyandincenseandflowersoffered.Onthefollowingmorning,allofthemgoout

roundthevillageortownandworshipthecaityasdevoutly.Theybring withthemcarriages withshelvesandsedanchairstocarryimagesof theBuddha,whiledrumsandotherinstrumentssoundunderthesky,andbannersandcanopies,properlyarranged,flut­

terhightoshadeoutthesun.Thisiscalledthesamagri,trans­latedascompleteassemblage.Allgreatfestivaldaysarecelebrated

inthesamewayasthis.ItisknowninChinaastheprocessiongoingroundthecity.

Whenit isnearlynoontime,theyreturnto themonasteryandhavetheirregularmealatmidday.Intheafternoon,they gathertogether,eachtakingahandfuloffreshcogongrass,andwhile

2i7cstampingtheirfeet on it,theyexercisetheirdutyof free criticism.Firstcomethemonksandthenthenuns,andlastly thethreelowergradesofthehomelessdisciples.I f itisfearedthatowingtothelargenumberof peopleattendingtheassembly,alongtimemightberequiredtocompletethefunction,moremembersof theassemblyshouldbeappointedtoheartheconfessions.When

one is accused of a fault, oneshouldmakea confessionandask forabsolutionaccordingtousage.

Atthistimeeitherthelaydisciplesoffergiftstothemonks,orthe monks exchangegiftsamongthemselves.Allalmsreceivedarebroughtintothepresenceoftheassembly,andaconfessorwhopossessesthefivevirtues[ofbeingfreefrompredilection,fromanger,andfromfear,ofnotbeingeasilydeceived,andofbeingabletodiscernshirkersofconfession]shouldaskthepre­sidingmonk,“Canthesealmsbedistributedtothemembersofthecommunityofmonkstobeplacedattheirdisposal?”Thepre­sidingmonksaysinanswer,“Yes!”Thenallrobes,razors,needles,awls,andthelikereceivedfromthedonorsareequallydis­tributedtothemonks.SuchistheteachingoftheVinaya.The

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reasonwhyrazorsandneedlesareofferedtothemonksonthisdayisthatthedonorswishthemtoacquiresharpintelligenceand

keenwisdom.

Afterthemutualcriticismandthedistributionofalms,themonksmaydisperseandeachgohisownway.Thisisthecomple­tionofthesummerretreat,andthereisnoneedforthemtospendanothernightthere.Afulldescriptionisgivenelsewhere,andIshallnotexplainithereindetail.

Theconfessionofguiltistodiscloseone’sownmisdeedsand

declarewhatoffensesonehascommittedinthepast,inordertorectifythepastandpreventfuturefaultswithperfectsincerityandearnestself-reproach.Theposadha(fasting)ceremonyiscon­ductedonceeveryh a lfmonth,andoneshouldreflecteverymorn­ingandeveningonwhatoffensesonehascommitted.(Yijingsrunningnote:Posameans“nourishing,”anddha,purifying.Thusposadhameansnourishinggooddeedsandpurifyingtheguiltofviolatingthedisciplinaryrules.Itwasformerlytransliteratedas

pu-shainawronglyabridgedform.)

Committinganyoffenseofthefirstgroupisirremediable,whileviolationoftherulesofthesecondgrouprequiresaquo­rumoftwentymembersofthecommunityofmonks(tolistentotheoffender’sconfessionandabsolvehimofhisguilt).I fonehascommittedaminoroffense,oneshouldmakeaconfessiontoab­solveone’sfaultbeforeamonkwhoisnotone’sequal.OftheSanskritwordapatti-pratidesana,apattimeansoffense,andpratidesana,confessingbeforeothers.Itis inthehopeofgainingpuritythatoneconfessesoneselfguilty.Oneshouldconfessofone’s faultsitembyitem,andthenexpiationmaybeexpected.AgeneralconfessionoffaultsisnotallowedbytheVinaya.Forconfessionweformerlysaidchan-huiinChinese,whichisactu­

allyirrelevanttotheconfessionofmisdeeds.Why?Becauseksamai(transliteratedaschan) isanIndianwordmeaningforbearance,whilehuiisaChinesewordmeaning“repentance,”andrepen­tancehasnothingtodowithforbearance.Ifwestrictlyfollow

theSanskrittext,weshouldsayatthetimeofmakingconfession,

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“Iconfessm yfaultswithasincerem ind.”Fromthiscarefulanalysis,wemayseethattotranslateksamaasrepentancehasscarcelyanyauthority.

InIndia,whenpeople,regardlessofa*ge,touchedeachotherunintentionallyorrubbedshoulderswhenpassingeachother,thesenioronelookedattheotherpersonwithhishandshangingdown,while thejunioronejoinedhishandspalmtopalmtopayduerespecttotheseniorone,ortostrokehisbodyorsome­

timesholdhisshoulder,utteringtheword“Ksama,”meaning“Pleaseforgivemeanddonotbeangrywithm e!”IntheVinayathewordksamaisusedtoexpressapology.Onlywhenonecon­fessesonesownfaultsisitknownasdesand(instruction).ItisforfearofcausingfuturemisunderstandingthatIhavespokenabouttheerrorsintroducedinformertimes.Ahabitmaybe­

comeacustomthroughlongusage.However,wemustfollowtheoriginalregulations.

TheSanskritwordpravaranaistranslatedasoptional.Italso

218ameanssatisfying,indicatingthatoneisfreetodisclosethefaultsofothermonksatone’soption.

16.TheUseofSpoonsandChopsticks

Inthewest,thepeopleuseonlythe righthandforeatingfood,butamonkmaybepermittedto keepaspoononaccountof illness.Asregardschopsticks,theyarenotheardof inthefivepartsof India,noraretheymentionedintheVinayatextsofthefourschoolsofBuddhistmonks.TheyareusedonlyinChinaintheeast.Itis,ofcourse,anoldcustomof thelaypeopleto usechopsticks,andmonksmayormaynotusethemaccordingtotheirpreference.Theuseofchopsticksisneitherallowednordisallowed,andthismatterfallswithinthescopeofthegeneralrulesof morality.I f nobodyderidesortalksabouttheuseofchopsticks,theymaywellbeutilizedinChina.Ifa monkholdschopsticks[inIndia], the laypeoplemaysneerathimwithcontempt.ButinIndiathepeoplehaveneverhandledchopsticks.Suchistheprincipleofthegeneralrulesofmorality.

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17.SalutationatProperTimes

Themannerofpaying homageshould be inconcordancewiththerules;otherwiseaprostrationwouldmerelybetumblingontheground.Therefore,the Buddhasaid,“Therearetwokindsofim­puritywithwhichoneshouldnotreceivesalutationnorsaluteothers.”Ifoneactsagainstthisteaching,everybowonemakesinvolvesthefaultofillbehavior.

Whatarethetwokindsofimpurity?

First,theimpuritycaused byeatinganddrinking.Ifonehaseatenanything,evenswallowedatabletof medicine,oneisunfitto receivesalutationorsaluteothers,unlessonehasrinsedone’smouthandwashed one’shands.Ifonesalutesotherswhenonehasnotrinsedone’smouthandwashedone shandsafterhavingdrunkju ice orwater,or even tea,honey,orotherliquids,such asghee,syrup,andthelike,onecommitsablunderasmentioned

above.

Second,theimpuritycausedbygoingtothelatrine.Ifonesalutesotherswhenonehasnotwashedoneselfcleanandhasnotwashed one’shandsandrinsedone’s mouth,orwhenonehasnotcleansedone’sbodyorrobesaftertheyaredefiled byexcrementorsoiledwith mucus,saliva,etc.,orwhenonehasnotchewedtoothwoodinthemorning,onecommitsablunderasmentionedabove.Whenthemonksgathertogethertotakeameal,onemayjustjoinone’shandspalmtopalmtoshowrespectwithoutpayingafullsalutation.Ifonepaysafullsalutationtoothersonsuchocca­sions,oneis actingagainst theteaching.Atabusyornarrowplace,oratanuncleanspot,ifonesalutesothers,onealsocommitsasimilarblunder.Allthesepointsaredescribed inthe Vinayatexts.Astherulesarehandeddownfromalongtimeago,andthe[Chi­nese]monksarelivinginacoldcountry,itisratherdifficultforthemtobehaveinaccordancewiththeteaching,eventhoughthey

\vishtodoso.Noneofthemdoesnotfindconsolationinhaving

fellowmonkslivingundersimilarcirc*mstances,andtheywouldnotcareaboutminoroffenses.

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18.AnsweringtheCallofNature

Ishallnowgiveabriefaccountconcerningevacuation.Oneshouldwearabathingskirtonthelowerpartofthebody,andputonaside-coveringclothfortheupperpart.Oneshouldthengotothelatrinewithatoiletja rfilledwithwater,andclosethedoorbe­hindoneselftohide.Fourteenlumpsofeartharepreparedandplacedonapieceofbrickorstone,oronasmallpieceofboard,outsidethelatrine.Thesizeof thebrickorboardisonecubitlongandhalfacubitwide.Thelumpsofeartharegroundintopowder

218bandkeptinseparateheapsarrangedintworows.Anadditionallumpisalsoplacedthere.Onetakesthreeballsofearthintothelatrineandputsthemaside.Oneofthemisusedforwipingthebodyandanotheroneforwashingit.Themannerofwashingthebodyistofirstwash*twiththelefthandwithwaterandthenpurifyitwithbothwaterandearth.Theremainingball isusedforroughly washingthelefthand.I f chips[of bamboo]areused[forcleaningpurpose],theymaybetakenintothelatrine,buttheyshould bethrownoutofthelatrineafterhavingbeenused.I f someoldpapermustbeused,itshouldbecastintothelatrineafterhavingbeenused.Afterhavingwashedoneselfclean,onemaystraightenone’sgarmentswiththerighthand, putthe ja raside,unfastenthedoorboltwiththeright hand,andcomeoutwiththeja rcarriedintherighthand.Oronemayholdtheja rinone’sleftarmwiththelefthandbendinginwards,andclosethedoorwiththerighthandbeforeoneleaves.

Thenonecomestotheplacewheretheballsofeartharekeptand squatsdownatoneside.Ifoneneedssomethingtositon,onemayuseanythingonethinksfitatthetime.Theja risplacedontheleftthighand presseddownbytheleftarm.Thesevenballsofearthnear oneselfareusedonebyonetowashthelefthand,andthentheothersevenareusedonebyonetowashbothhands.Thebrickorboardmustbewashedclean.Theremainingballisusedforwashingthejar,andthenthearms,thethighs,andthefeet,tomakethemallclean.Afterthatonemaygoanywhereonewishes.

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Thewaterinthetoiletja risunfitforputtingintothe mouthortothelips.Aftergoingbacktoone’schamber,oneshouldrinsethemouthwithwaterfromacleanjar.Incaseonehastouchedthetoiletja rafterhavingfinishedtheaffair,oneshouldagainwashone’shandsand rinseone’smouth;thenonemaytouchotherutensils.Thesearetherules,asroughlystatedabove,concerningrelaxing thebowels.Inordernottotroubleothers,amonkalwayswasheshimself,butitisnotafaulttoaskanattendant,i f hehasone,towashforhim.Afterurination,oneortwoballsofearthmaybeusedforwashingthehandsandbody.Purificationismostimportant,asitisthefoundationofveneration.

Somepeoplemayconsideritasmallmatter,buttheVinaya

severelyberates[thosewhoviolatetherules].If onehas notwashedoneselfclean,oneisunfittositonaseatofthemonastery,norshouldheworshipthetriplegem.BytheserulesSariputraoncesubduedtheheretics.ThustheBuddhalaiddowntherulesformonksingeneral.ThosewhopracticetheseruleswillgaintheblessednessofobservingthepreceptsoftheVinaya.Iftheydonot,theygoagainsttheBuddha’steachingandwillincurguilt.Foralongtimeinthepast,suchruleswerenotintroducedtoChina

intheeast.

Eveni ftheyhadbeenintroduced,theywouldhavearousedthedetestation[oftheChinesemonks],whowouldhavesaid:IntheMahayanatheoryof completevoidness,whatispureandwhatisimpure?Sincetheinsideof theabdomenisfullof filth,whatistheuseofwashingtheoutside?” Theydo notknowthatbyslight­inganddisparagingtheteachingsanddisciplinaryrules,theyareslanderingandcalumniatingtheholymind.Theyincurguilteitherbyreceivingsalutationorbypayingsalutationtoothers,andheav­enlybeingsandspiritsabhortheirwayofwearingrobesandeat­ingfood.Ifapersondoesnotwashhimselfclean,thepeopleof allthefivepartsof Indiawilllaughathimandhewillbesneeredatwhereverhegoes.Thosewhoareengagedinpropagatingthe

Buddha’steachingsshouldworkfortheirdissemination.Sincewe218c

haverenouncedworldlylifeandhaverelinquishedourhomesto

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becomehom elessmonks,weshouldabidebythewordsofSakyamuni,theFather.WhyshouldwecastangrystaresatthesayingsoftheVinaya texts?Ifonedoes notbelieveinthesepoints,onehadbettertrytofollowthedirectivesforwashingoneself.Afterdoingso forfiveorsixdays,onewillgraspthedefectof notwashingoneselfclean[aftergoingtothelatrine].Inthecoldsea­son,however,warmwatermustbeprepared.Inthethreeotherseasons,onemayusewhateverwateronelikes.Buttheuseofawatertubeoratroughandapieceof silkforwipingisnotbasedontheVinayatexts.Therearesomepeoplewhokeepsomewater

intheirmouthandleavethelatrine,andthisisalsoagainsttherulesofpurification.

Foramonasterytheremustbe, first of all,alatrinebuiltandkeptclean.Ifthemonksareunabletomakeone,theymayin­structsomedevoteesto buildone fortheuse of all monks,whetherholyorordinaryones,coming fromthetenquarters.Itisimpor­tantnot to spend muchmoneyfor it. Such is thewayof purification,whichisbynomeansafutileaction.

Abigtroughcapableofholdingoneortwoshi(oneshiequalsonehundredliters),filledwithearth,shouldbepreparedandputbesidethelatrine,asthemonkshavenoplacetostoreearthintheirprivatechambers.Ifamonkdoesnotactuallypossessawa­

terjar,heisallowedtouseaporcelainorearthenpottocarrywaterandputitasideinthelatrine.Hemayusehisrighthandtowashhimselfharmlessly.

IntheregionsoftheYangziandHuaiRivers,manylatrinesaremadeof bigearthenurnshalfburiedbelowthesurfaceof theground.Oneshouldnotwashoneselfatsuchplaces.Separatewashingplacesshouldbeprepared,preferablyatspotswithstreamsofflowingwater.InsuchmonasteriesasBao-fuMonas­teryatFen-zhou,Ling-yanMonasteryatMountDai,Yu-quanMon­asteryinthecapitalcityofJing-zhou,andtheWhitePagodaMonasteryatYang-zhou, the latrinesarebuiltquiteinaccordancewiththetraditionalrules,exceptforthelackof asupplyofwaterandearth.Hadsomepeopletaughtthemtheproperwayofdoing

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it,thearrangementwouldhavebeenthesameasthatatRajagrha.Thisisduetotheindifferenceoftheformersages;thepupilsoflatetimesarenottobeblamedforbeingignorant.

Theearthaswellasthewaterstoredinajarthatiskeptin

thelatrineshould besafely placedandsufficiently supplied;thereshouldbenoshortages.Itisbetterto useawaterpotwithaspouttoreplenishthejar.Ifonewishestokeepabottle,therulesforthathavebeenrelatedbefore.Acopper bottle witha lid overthewidemouthisunsuitableforwashing.But if a holeismadeinthesideof thebottle,thetopis weldedwithtin,andasmallapertureismadeintheprotrudingpointonthetop,itmayalsobeusedasamakeshift,tomeettherequirementsofthetime.

SupplementalRemarks

Ihavetoiledwithmypenandpapertoexpressmydeepandear­nestsentiments,withthehopethatsomepeoplewillacceptmyremonstrancesaswaterfollowsthecourseof astream.TheGreatSagehaspassedintothestateofcalmbetweenthetwinsalatrees,andthearhatshavebecomeashesinthefivepartsof India.TheDharmathey haveleftbehindisstillexertinginfluenceuptothismorning.Weshouldfollowtheexampleofthosewhohavegiven

uptheirlivesanddrawourinspirationfromtheoneswhohaveabandoned theworld.Weshouldforsakethetroublesthatcauseturbidityinourminds,andshouldadmire the brilliantworldofpurity.Letbothexternaldefilementsandinternaldelusionsbeclearedaway,andtheuppertiestogetherwiththelowerbond­agesbecompletelydestroyed.Ourtracesinlifewillbeinactiveand our spirits will become clearand bright.Inanyone of the fourpostures[ofwalking,standing,sitting,andlying],weshallcausenoinvolvement,andthethreehonoredones[theBuddha,theDharma,andtheSangha]willbenearanddeartous.Sincewe

arenotmockedbylivingpeople,whyshouldwefeartheangerof219a

thelordofdeath?Withmythoughtsconcentratedonbenefiting

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allsentientbeingsoftheninehappystates,Ishallcompletethegoodcauseof realizingBuddhahoodinthreelongages.Isincerelyhopethatonemanoutof tenthousandrectifieshimselfthroughm ywords.ThenIshallnotregretthepainsandhardshipsIhavesufferedduringthelasttwentyyearsandmore.

EndofFascicleTwo

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19.RegulationsforOrdination

Therulesforbecomingamonkinthewesterncountryof IndiawerealllaiddownbytheHolyOne,andareextensivelyrelatedintheMulasarvastivada-nikaya-ekasata-karman.HereIshalljustsketchtheminbrief.Anyonewhohasthe intentionofbecomingahomelessmonkmaygoof hisownfreewilltoateacherwhomhelikesandinformhimofhiswish.Theteacherthenmakesinanexpedientwaythenecessaryinquiriesastowhethertheappli­cant[hascommitted]patricideormatricide,etc.Afterhavingfoundthathehascommittednoneoftheseriouscrimesthatwouldbarhimfromenteringthecommunityof monks,theteacheragreestoaccepthim.Havingbeenaccepted,theapplicantispermittedtorelaxandrestfortendaysuptoonemonth.Thentheteacherimpartstohimthefiveprecepts,whereuponheisnamedanupdsaka(amale laydevotee).Beforethatheisnotcounted amongthesevengroupsofBuddhistdisciples;thisisthebasicstepforenteringtheteachingsoftheBuddha.Theteacherthenprepares

forhimastripeless robe,asamkaksika,andanundergarment,aswellasanalmsbowlandastrainer,beforehemakesastatement

totheassemblyof monks,informingthemthatacandidatewishesto becomeamonk.Withtheconsentof theassemblyof monks,theteacher,onbeha lfofthecandidate,asksamonktobethecandidate’sdearya(instructor).Atasecluded placea barbershaveshishairandbeard,andcoldorwarmwaterispreparedaccordingtotheseasonforhimtotakeabath.Afterthattheteacherhelpshimtoputontheundergarmentandconvenientlyascertainsthatheis notaeunuch,etc.Thentheteachergiveshimtheoutergar­ment,whichhereceivesbyputtingitoverhishead.Havingput

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onthereligious robe,thecandidateis given the alms bowl. This isknownasthe ceremonyof home-leaving.Next,inthepresenceoftheteacher,theâcâryaimpartsthetenpreceptstothecandidate,

219beitherbyrecitingthemorreadingfromatext.Afterhavingre­ceivedthetenprecepts,heisknownasasrâmanera(novice).(Yijin g’srunningnote:Thisistranslatedas“seekerofquietude,”meaninghewhoaimstoseektheconditionof perfectquietudeofnirvana.Theoldtransliterationwassha-mi,whichistooshortandthepronunciationisincorrect.Itwastranslatedasonewho

hasenteredthelifeofrestandshowslovingkindnesstoall.Themeaningisaccurate,butwithoutauthority.)

Theregulations,thedisciplinaryrules,theaskingforinstruc­tion,andthesolicitationofpermissionfromtheSanghaarethesameinsubstanceforallqualifiedcandidateswhoproceedtore­ceiveordination.AccordingtotheVinayatexts,asrâmanerais notconsideredguiltyif hehascommittedanyof thetwelveparticularoffenses,butforasiksamânâ(probationaryfemalenovice)therearesomemodificationsoftherules.Whatarethetwelveoffenses?

1.Failuretodistinguishbetween(legalandillegal)robes.

2.Sleepingwithoutwearingagarment.

3.Touchingfire.

4.Eatingtoexcess.

5.Injuringlivingthings.

6.Discardingfilthupongreengrass.

7.Climbingupatalltreewithoutpurpose.

8.Touchingjewels.

9.Eatingleftoverfood.

10.Diggingintheground.

11.Refusingtoacceptofferingsoffood.

12.Damaginggrowingsprouts.

ForthetwolowergradesofmembersoftheSangha(maleandfemalenovices),thecommissionofthesetwelveoffensesdoesnotincurguilt,butforthesiksamânâsthenonobservanceofthelastfiverulesincursguilt.Allofthesethreelower-grademembersshouldobservethesummerretreat.Thesixmajorrulesandsix

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auxiliaryones(forsiksamanas)arespokenofelsewhere.If theycanobservetheserules,theymaybeconsideredinconcordancewiththeDharmaand countedamongthefivegroupsofBuddhistdisciples,beingworthytoreceivethematerialadvantagesofferedtothem.Howcanateachernotimpartthetenpreceptstoonewhohaslefthometobecomeamonk,outoffearthathemightbreakthem,andthushecouldnotreceivefullordination?Insuch

acasethenovicewouldmerelybearthefalsenameofbeingasramaneraandvainlyassumethetitleofamonk.Heseemstohaveenjoyedasmalladvantage,butactuallyhesuffersagreatloss.Itissaidinascripture,“Onewhohasnotreceivedthetenprecepts,thoughcountedasamemberof theSangha,hasaseatonlytemporarily,andhowcanheholditforlong?

IntheDivineLandofChinaonebecomesamonkandleaveshishomeby publicregistration. Aftershavinghishairwithgov­ernmentpermission,hegoesto livewithateacherforsometime.Theteacherdoes nottakecare tomakeanyof the inquiries of thedisciple,nordoesthedisciplerequesttheimpartationof thetenprecepts.Beforereceivingfullordination,suchapersoncommitsallsortsofguiltyactionsunscrupulously.Onthedayof receivingfull ordination,he is simply ledtothealtarwithoutprevious knowl­edge oftherites laid down intheVinaya.Howcan hebehave prop­erlyatthetime oftheceremony?This is notrightformaintainingtheWay.Heisneitherfittobearesidentmonkof amonastery,noristhereanydoubtaboutthedebtheincursbyreceivingthealmsgiventohim.Heshouldactaccordingtotheteachingsforthesalvationofhimselfandothers.

Onewhobecomesamonkbypermissionofthegovernment

shouldaskamonkbeforehandtobehisteacher,whowillfirstmakethe inquiries and then, if he is found pure of theimpedimentalcrimes,teachhimthefiveprecepts.Afterseeinghimhavinghishairshaved,theteacherthendresseshiminastripelessrobeand

impartstohimthetenprecepts.

When thenovicehasbecomeacquaintedwith thereligiousrites,hasreachedtherequiredage,andwishestoreceivefull

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ordination,theteacher,havingseenthatthediscipleiscapableofkeepingthedisciplinaryruleswithresolution,maypreparethesixrequisitesfor himandinvitenineother monks[to bewit­nesses],Theceremonymaybelegitimately performedon asmallterrace,inalargeenclosure,orwithinanaturalboundary.In­sidethelimitedareaforthefunction,matsbelongingtotheSangha maybe usedor eachmonkmaybringhis ownmatforaseat.Someincenseandflowersmaybepreparedinaninexpen­siveway.Thecandidateistaughttopayrespectthreetimestoeachofthemonks,orsometimestoapproacheachofthemandtouchhisfeetasasignofhomage.Bothways areproperman­nersofsalutationtaughtbytheBuddha.

Afterhavingpaidhomagetothemonks,thecandidateisin­structedto begforfullordination.Whenhehasdoneso threetimes,histeachergiveshimtherobesandanalmsbowlinthepresenceofthemonksassembledfortheoccasion.Thebowlshouldbecar­riedaroundandbeshowntoeachof themonks.I f itisproperinmode,allofthemshouldsay,“Agoodbowl!”I ftheydidnotsayanything,theywouldincurthefaultofinfringingtheDharma.AfterthattheceremonyofordinationisconductedaccordingtotheDharma.Thekarmacarya(chiefceremonyofficiant)holdsa

textandreadsitaloud,orrecitesitfrommemory,bothbeingal­lowedbytheBuddha.Theonewhohasreceivedthedisciplinaryrulesisknownasanupasampanna.(Yijing’srunningnote:Upameans“neart o”andsampanna,“completeness,”indicatingnir­vana.Havingreceivedfullordination,oneisneartonirvana.The

oldtranslationis “fullness,” whichgivesageneralideaof theterm.)Assoonastheceremonyiscompleted,oneshouldimmediatelymeasuretheshadow ofthesunandnotedowndistinctlythenameofoneofthefiveseasons.

Theshadowofthesunismeasuredinthefollowingmanner.Takeafinestick,aboutthesizeofaslenderchopstickonecubitlong.Benditatapointfourfinger-widthsfromoneendand makeitintotheshapeof acarpenter’ssquare,butmindthattheshorterpartofthestickisnotbrokenawayfromthelongersection.Let

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theshorterpartstanderectunderthesun,andplacethelongersectionontheground, overlayingtheshadowcastbytheshorterpartofthestick.Thenmeasuretheshadowwithfourfingers.Alengthoffullyfourfinger-widthsiscalledonepurusa.Thuswehaveso manypurusasoftime,orsometimesonepurusaandonefinger-widthorhalfafinger-width,orsimplyonefinger-width

oftime,etc.Inthiswaytimeismeasuredand calculatedbyadd­ingorreducingthenumberoffinger-widths.(Yijingsrunningnote:Thewordpurusaistranslatedas“man.”Thelengthof fourfinger-widthsofshadowiscalledonepurusa,becausewhentheshadowoftheverticalstick,whichisfourfinger-widthslong,casts

ashadowofthesamelengthontheground,theshadowofamanstanding underthesun willmeasurethesameas hisheight.Whentheshadowoftheverticalstickiseightfinger-widthslong,theman’sshadowonthegroundisdoublehisheight.Suchisthecasewithamanofmediumheight;itisnotnecessarilysowithallpersons.Othermeasurementsoftimearealsomadebythesamemethod.)Butitmustbemadeclearwhetheritisbeforeorafterthe[midday]meal.Whentheweatheriscloudyoratnight,themeasurementshouldbemadeinanappropriatewayasone

thinksfit.

AccordingtothemethodadoptedinChina,weputarulerver­ticallyunderthesunatmiddaytomeasuretheshadowofthesun,ortomarkthetwelvetwo-hourperiodsofadayandnight.Thefiveseasonsarecountedinvariouswaysindifferentregions,andthenumberofmonthsintheyearissometimesoddandsome­timeseven.Thusitisdifficulttoknowthemwithcertainty,unlesstheyareexplainedwithreferencetoaspecificmatter.

Thefirstseasoniswinter,whichconsistsof fourmonths,fromthesixteenthdayof theninthmoontothe fifteenthdayofthefirstmoon.Thesecondseasonis spring, whichalso consistsof fourmonths,fromthesixteenthdayof thefirstmoontothefifteenthdayofthefifthmoon.Thethirdoneistherainyseason,whichlastsonlyonemonth,fromthesixteenthdayof thefifthmoontothefifteenthdayofthesixthmoon.Thefourthoneisthefinal

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season,whichlastsonlyonedayandnightonthesixteenthdayofthesixthmoon.Thefifthoneisthelongseason,whichlastsfromtheseventeenthdayofthesixthmoontothe fifteenthdayoftheninthmoon.ThissystemlaiddownbytheBuddhafordi­vidingtheseasonsisfoundonlyintheVinayatexts,andthereisevidentlyadeepsignificanceinit.Accordingtotheusagesofdifferentlocalities,theyearisdividedintothree,four,orsixsea­sons,asismentionedelsewhere.

InIndiaorontheislandsoftheSouthSeas,whenonemonkmeetsanotheroneforthefirsttime,heaskstheotherone,“Ven­erableOne,howmanytimeshaveyoudonethesummerretreat?”Theotheroneanswers,“Soandsomanytimes.”Iftheyhavedonethesamenumberofsummer retreatsafterordination,theinquireraskstheotheroneinwhichseasonhewasordained.I ftheywereordainedinthesameseason,theinquireragainasksthenumberofdaysleftinthatseasonwhenhewasordained.If

220athenumberofdaysleftinthatseasonisalsothesame,theoneaskstheotherwhetherhewasordainedbeforeorafterthemealonthatday.Incasebothofthemwereordainedintheforenoon,thentheyinquireaboutthelengthoftheshadowunderthesunatthemo­mentofordination.If thereisanydifferenceinthelengthoftheshadow,theseniorityofthetwoisdetermined.Ifthereisnodifference,thetwoofthemareofequalstanding.Inthatcase,theorderofseatsisarrangedaccordingtotheprincipleofpriorityofarrival,andtheduty-distributormayalloweitherofthemtotakeprecedenceovertheotherinperformingreligiousduties.

ThosewhogotoIndiamustbeacquaintedwiththesepoints.ItisunlikeinChina,wherethemonksjustinquireabout thedateofordination.ButinNalandaMonasterythemonksoftenreceivefullordinationwhenthe[first]morningofthelongseasonhasjustdawned.They meantoclaimseniorityovermostofthemonksordainedinthesamesummer.ItcorrespondswiththedawnoftheseventeenthdayofthesixthmooninChina.Theydo notwanttheordinationtofallonthedateofcommencementofthesecondsummerretreat.(Yijing’srunningnote:Thisisaccordingtothe

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methodofobservingthesummer retreatinIndia.Ifwe follow theoldpracticeinChina,thedatewouldfallontheseventeenthdayof the fifthmoon.) Onewhor*ceivesordinationwhen thenightisdrawingtotheendonthe sixteenthdayofthesixthmoonisthemostjuniormonkamongallmonks ordainedinthesamesummerbecauseheisordainedinthesecondsummerretreat.

Afterhavingreceivedordination,thediscipledoesnothavetomakeofferingstoothers,butif histeacher hasthemeans,hemayprepareonbehalfofhisdisciplesomegifts,suchasagirdle,astrainer,andthelike,forthemonkswhosepresenceisrequiredfortheperformanceoftheceremonyatthealtarofordination,in

order to express hismindofgratitude.Then theupadhyaya(spiri­tual teacher)givestheTexto f theDisciplinaryRulestothedis­cipleandteacheshimthecharacterofoffensesandhowtorecite

therules.Whenthediscipleiswelllearnedintherules,hewillreadthefulltextoftheVinaya-pitaka(Collectiono fBooksonMonasticDiscipline),whichhereciteseverydayandtriestoob­servefrommorningtomorning.Ifhedoesnotliveuptothemconstantly,hemightlosehismentalpower.Whenhehasstudied

theVinaya-pitaka,hebeginstolearnthesutrasandsastras.SuchisthewayateacherinstructshisdiscipleinIndia.AlthoughalongperiodhaspassedsincethetimeoftheSage,thismethodofinstructionstillprevailsunaltered.Therefore,thesetwoteachers

are likened toone’sparents.Is itrightfor amonktoundergoun­usualtoiland fatiguebecause of adesire to receiveordination,yetpayno heedtothedisciplinary ruleswhenhehas beentaughttoobservethem?Itisapitythatoneshouldhavestartedagoodcause,butfailedtocarryitthroughtotheend!

Therearesomepeoplewhodesiretobeordainedatthemoment

whentheyfirstmeettheirteachers,butoncetheyareordained,theycometostudyundertheirteachersnomore.Theyneitherreadthebookonthepreceptsnordotheyopenthetextsof theVinaya,butunworthilyenjoytheadvantagesof beingamongtheranksof monks,doingharmtothemselvesaswellastoothers.SuchpeoplewillcausethedownfalloftheDharma.

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Accordingtothe practiceof India,afteramonkhasreceivedfullordination,heiscalledadahara(juniormonk),whichistrans­latedintoChineseas“smallteacher.”Whenhehaspassedtenfullsummerretreats,heisknownasasthavira(anelder),whichistranslatedas“abidingposition. ” Asamonkoftenyears’stand­ingheisinapositiontoleavehisteacherandabidebyhimself.

Hemayalsoactasanupadhyaya(officiantattheceremonyofordination).

Inwritinglettersorexchangingcommunications,amonkshouldstylehimselfSramaneraso-and-so,orDaharaBhiksuso-and-so,orSthaviraBhiksuso-and-so,asthecasemaybe.I f heiswellversedinbothBuddhistlearningandworldlyloreandisamanofhighvirtueandnoblecharacter,hemaycallhimselfBahusruta(well-learned)Bhiksuso-and-so.Butonemustnotdes­ignateoneselfSanghaso-and-so,becausethetermSanghameansagroupof nolessthanfourpersons.Howcanoneindividualuseanappellationindicatingagroupofpersonstodenoteoneman?InIndiathereisnosuchcustomascallingoneselfaSangha.

Onewhobecomesanupadhyayamustbeasthavira,havingpassedtenfullsummerretreats.Thereisnoseniorityrequire­mentforthekarmacaryawhoactsasaprivatetutorandtheothermonkswhoserveaswitnesses,buttheymustbewelllearnedintheVinayaandpureinobservingallthedisciplinary

220brules.ItissaidintheVinayathattocalloneanupadhyayawho

is notanupadhyaya,orto call oneanacaryawhois notanacarya,or viceversa,defilingthenameofupadhyaya,incurs the guiltofevil-doing.Ifamaninquires,“Whatisthenameofyour

upadhyaya?”or“Whosediscipleareyou?”,orwhenoneisobligedtomentionthenameofone’steacher,oneshouldsay,“Inthecirc*mstances,Iamobligedtotellthenameofmyupadhyaya,whosenameisso-and-so. ” InIndiaandontheislandsoftheSouthSeas,itisnothaughtytousetheword“I .”Itisalsonotarudeformofaddressifonesays“you. ”Itissimplymeanttodistin­guishonepersonfromanother,withoutamindofcontemptto­wardsothers.ThisisnotlikeinChina,whereitisconsidered

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despicabletousesuchpronouns.Ifonedislikesusingtheword“I,”onemaysay“thisperson”insteadof“I.”ThesepointsweretaughtbytheBuddha,anditisfittingtoputthemintopractice.Oneshouldnotechowhatothershavesaid,makingnodistinction

betweenrightandwrong.

WhenlaymenwhoaredressedinwhitecometotheresidenceofbhiksustostudyBuddhisttextsexclusively,withtheinten­tionofshavingtheirhairandbecomingmonkscladinblackrobes,theyarecalled“childrenofmen.”Thosewhocometoseeksecu­larlearning withoutthemindtorelinquish theworldareknownas“students.”Thesetwoclassesofpupilshavetoprovidefoodforthemselves.(Yijing’srunningnote:Inthe monasteriesof In­diathereareinmostcasesstudentswhohavecometolearnsecu­

larliteraturefromthebhiksus.Theymayserve,ontheonehand,asattendantstotheirteachers,and,ontheotherhand,theymaycherishpiousaspirationsbecauseoftheinstructionsim­partedtothem.Asthisisbeneficialtobothsides,thereisnoharminkeeping thesestudents.Eachofthemshouldkeeponlyonealmsbowllikeanascetic,soasnottocauseanytroubletoothers.Butiffractionalalmsaregiventothem,itisalsopermit­ted.Letthemdistributetoothwoodtothemonksandserveatmeals.Tosupplythemwithsufficienttim elyrequirementsis notdetrimentaltotheprincipleofcompassion.)ToletthempartakeofthefoodofthepermanentSanghaistotallybannedbytheholyteachings.Butiftheyhavedonesomehardworkforthecommunity,theymaybegiveneitherordinaryfoodorfoodpur­poselypreparedforthembeforehandbydonors,whichthey maytakewithoutcommittingamisdeed.

Thebrilliance[issuingfromtheBuddha]attheNairanjana

Riverhas fadedaway,andhisradianceonVulturePeakhasdis­appeared.HowmanyarhatshavesurvivedtotransmittheDharma?Thusitissaidinasastra:“SincetheGreatTeacherclosedhiseyes,thosewhohaverealizedsainthoodhavealso passedawayoneafteranother.Inthis timewhen moraldefilementsareontheincrease,weshouldbemorediligentandneverrelaxourspiritual

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efforts.Allthe virtuousmonksshould worktogetherto safeguardtheDharma.I f we are listlessand inertand give the reins to self-conceit,whithershallweguidemenandheavenlybeings?ItissaidintheVinaya:“So longasthedisciplinaryrulesareobserved,m yDharmawillnotperish.I fthereis no oneobservingtherules,myDharmawillcometo anend.”It is also said:“Whenthepre­cepts exist,I exist. ” These are notemptywords;theyimply a deepmeaningandaretrulyworthyofourrespect.

Letmerepeatit:

TheshadowoftheGreatTeacherhasfaded,WithittheDharmawillperish.

Loftyisthemountainofheresy,Thehillofwisdomhascollapsed.

ThereilluminationofthesunofBuddhaDependsuponmenofgoodvirtue.

Ifwefollowthesmallpath,

WhowillpropagatethegreatWay?

Letuspraythatthewell-learnedmastersDotheirbesttobringaboutit*spread.

WehopetheWaywillthrive withoutfail,Passingthroughendlessageswithgoodfame.Wherereststhegoodfame?

Intheactivewavesintheseaofprecepts.

Thustheteachingwillnotperish,thoughneartheend.Actionswillnotgoastray,evenonthevergeof error.ThiscoincideswiththerightwordsspokenatRajagrha.One’sdeedswillnotbreaktherulesoftheJetaGrove.

20.TheTimesforTakingaBath

Thecustoms regardingtaking bathsinIndiaaredifferentfromthosem China.In India the climate istemperatewith slight variations indifferent regions.Thereare flowersand fruitsthroughoutthe year,eveninthetwelfthmonth.Snowandiceareunknown,exceptfor

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athinlayerof frost.Althoughtheweatherishotatmosttimes,theheatisnever unbearable.Even inhotweather,peopledo notsuffer frompricklyheat, andinthecold season,theirfeetare notchapped.Because of this[moderate climate],the peopletake bathsfrequentlyandsetstorebybodilycleanliness.Every day theydonoteat beforehavingwashedthemselves.Thereare ponds full ofwaterinallplaces,and thepeopleconsideritameritoriousdeedto dig ponds.Ifwetravelfrom one post house toanother,wemaycomewithinsightoftwentyorthirtybathingpondsalongthe

way,whichmeasureonetofivemu(onemuequalsone-fifteenthhectare)insize.Onallfoursidesoftheponds,thereareplantedtalatrees(palmyratrees)growingtoaheightof fortyorfifty feet.Rainwateriscollectedintheponds,whichareas limpidasaclearriver.Attheeightcaityas,therearethepondsinwhichtheWorld-honoredOnebathedhimself.Thewaterinthesepondsissoclearandserenethatitlooksdifferentfromthatinotherponds.

AtNalanda Monasterytherearemorethantenlargebathingpools,andeverymorninganinstrumentissoundedtocallthemonkstotakebaths.Everyoneofthembringshisbathingskirt,andhundredsorthousandsofmonksgooutofthemonasteryinalldirectionstothepoolstobathethemselves.Thebathingskirtisworninthefollowingmanner.Takeapieceof softcottonclothfiveforearmsinlengthandoneandahalfforearmswide.Wrapitroundthebody,andthendrawofftheundergarmentbeneathit.Bothendsofthebathingskirtarepulledtothefront.Thentakeholdoftheuppercorneroftheleftendwiththerighthandandstretchitdowntothewaisttotouchthebody.Therightendistwistedwiththeleftone,andbotharepressedinbetweenthewaistandtheskirtit*elf.Thisisthewayofwearingabathingskirt.Theskirtwornatbedtimeisalsoputoninthesameway.

Atthetimeofcomingoutofthebathingpool,oneshouldshakeone’sbodyand emergefromthewaterslowly,forfearthatsomeinsectsmayclingtotheskirtandbetakenoutof thewater.HowtocomeuptothebankisdescribedindetailintheVinayatexts.Ifamonkdoesnotgotoabathingpondbuttakesabathinthe

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monastery,thebathingskirt isalsoputon inthesame way,andsomeoneisaskedtopourthewaterforhim.Ascreenmaybeputupanywhereatanytime.

TheWorld-honoredOnetaughtushowtobuildabathroom,orconstructanopen-airpoolwithbricks,ormakeamedical bathforthetreatmentof disease.Healsotaughtustoanointthewholebody,rubthefeetwithointmenteverynight,anddabtheheadwithoileverymorning.Doingsoisverygoodforkeepingcleareyesightandwardingoffthecold.

Furthermore,one should takeabathbeforeeatingfood.Therearetwo benefitsderived fromeatingfoodaftertakinga bath.First,thebodyispureandempty,withoutanydirt.Second,onewillhavea goodappetite,asone’sphlegmandmentaldepression aredissolvedaftertakingabath.Bathingaftertakingasquaremeal

221aisforbiddenbythescienceofmedicine.Thuswemayknowthatthesayingabout“washing one’shair whenoneishungryandtak­ingabathwithafullstomachisnottheopinionofanall-roundscholar.Usingabathingwrapper threefeetlong,too shorttocoverthebody,ortakingabathnakedwithoutwearinganything,isincongruous withtheteachingsof theBuddha.Oneshoulduseabathingskirtfourtimesaslongasitiswide,bigenoughtocoverthebodyinadecentmanner.Thisisnotonlycompatiblewiththeholyteachings,butalsocausesnoshameinthepresenceof menandheavenlybeings.Oneshouldalsoknowaboutotherthingsthatareunwise.Evenwhentakingabathatnight,oneshould

notbeunbecominginappearance.Howcanoneuncoveroneselfbeforepeople’seyes?

21.TheClothforSittingOn

To spreadthesittingcloth[ormat]ontheground for worshiping isnotthe practice inthe five parts of India.Nor is it mentionedintherulesofthefourschoolsthatoneshouldcrouchdownandstandup

threetimesinsalutation.Howworshiperspayhomagewillbede­scribedinotherchapters.

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Tomakeaclothforsitting,a pieceof clothiscut[intwo],onepartbeingplacedupontheotherandstitched together.Thereisnotimeformetogiveafulldescriptionofitsmeasurement.Theclothisneededtopreservethemattressesofotherswhenonein­tendstosleepthereon.Incaseonehastouseanythingbelongingtoothers,whetheroldornew,onemustcoveritwithone’sownsittingcloth.Ifitisone’sownpropertyandisold,oneneednotcoveritwiththesittingcloth.Onemustnotsoilorspoilthegiftspresentedbydonors.

Thesittingclothisnotusedforworshiping.Themonks[ofthe

islands] intheSouthSeas keepa cottonkerchief,threeor five feetlongandfoldedlikeanapkin,whichtheyplaceunder theirkneesasapadwhenpayinghomage.Whentheyarewalking,theycarry

it on their shoulders. Allbhiksuscoming from India smiled at them[becauseoftheircuriouscustom].

22.RulesConcerningSleepingandResting

InIndia,asthelivingquarters[ofthemonks]arenarrowandlimited,wheretherearemanyresidents,thebedsareliftedupafterthemonkshavearisen[inthe morning].Thebedsareputtogetheratonesideoftherooms,orremovedandstoredawayoutofdoors.Abedistwocubits(onecubitequalseighteentotwenty-twoinches)broadandfourandahalfcubitslong,withamattressandamatofthesamesize,bothofwhicharelightandnotheavy.Thegroundisthenwipedcleanwithdrycowdung,andsittingcouches,blocksofwood,smallmats,etc.,arear­ranged.Themonkstaketheirseatsinaccordancewiththeirseniorityandperformtheirusualduties.Allthe utensilsfortheirsustenanceareplacedonshelves.Thereisnorulethatthebedmustbescreenedwithapieceof robe.I foneisnotqualifiedtosleepinthemonks’quarters,oneshouldnotdoso,andi foneisqualifiedtosleepthere,whyshouldonehideoneselfbehinda

robescreen?

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BeforeusingabedbelongingtotheSangha(communityofmonks),onemustputacoveringonitfirst.Thesittingclothissuitableforthispurpose.I f onedoesnotdo so,oneisapttosufferthegriefofhavingablackback.ThiswastaughtbytheBuddha,andonemustnotbenegligentaboutit.

InthetenislandsoftheSouthSeas,as wellas inthefivepartsof India,peopledonotusewoodenpillowstosupportthehead.ThisisacustomprevalentonlyinChina.ThepillowsusedinIndia

221bareallsimilarinstyle.Silkorcotton,dyedinanycoloraccordingtoone’sliking,issewnintoastraightbag,oneandahalfcubitslongandh a lfacubitwide.Itisstuffedwithmaterialproducedeverywhere,suchaswool,hempfiber,cattailpollen,willowcat­kins,kapok,reedcatkins,vinesofthegreattrumpetflower,softleaves,drymoss,cassiatora,ramie,orspottedpeas.Itmaybehighorlowaccordingtowhethertheseasoniscoldorhot, ju sttomakeitcomfortableandrestfulforthebody,withoutfeelinghardorstiff.Buta woodenpillowisroughandstrong,andas windmaypassbelowtheneck,itoftencausesheadaches.Customs,however,differinvariouslands,anddifferentthingsareappreciated.Iam

ju stnarratingherewhatunusualthingsIhaveheard,anditis uptothereadertodecidewhatcustomsheshouldadopt.Butthingsofawarmnaturetendtokeepoff cold,andramieandpeasaregoodforbrighteningeyesight.Allthesethingsarebeneficialandmaybeusedwithoutfault.I foneexposestheheadtocoldinachillycountry,oneisliabletosufferfromfebrilediseases,andca­tarrhmthewinterseasonisalsoduetothesamecause.I f onekeepstheheadwarmproperly,onemaybefreefromsuchdis­

eases.Thesaying“keeptheheadcoldbutkeepthefeetwarm”isnotalwaystrustworthy.

Aholyimage[of theBuddha]issometimes placedinamonk’sroom,eitheronawindowsillorinanichespeciallymadeforit.Whensittingdowntotakeameal,the monksscreenoff theimagewithaclothcurtain.Theybatheiteverymorningandofferin­censeandflowerstoitregularly.Everydayatnoon,themonksofferfoodtoitwhentakingameal.Thecaseforstoringscriptures

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is placedatoneside.Atsleepingtimetheystay inaseparateroom.InthevariousislandsoftheSouthSeas,thecustomisthesame.SuchisthewaythemonksveneratetheBuddhaatordinarytimesintheirprivaterooms.Theholyimagesofamonasteryareallinstalledinaspecialshrinehall.Howcananimage,afterhavingbeenmade,neverbewashedandwipedduringitslifetime?I f itisnotafestivalday,whyshouldoneofferfoodfrequentlytoanim­age?Tospeakfromthispointof view,whatistheharminlivinginthesameroomwithanimage[of theBuddha]?Whenthe GreatTeacherwasliving,hepermittedthemonkstoliveinthesameroomwithhim.Animageisbutarepresentationoftherealper­son.Logicallyspeaking,thereisnoharmindoingso.Thisisalong-standingtraditionpracticedinIndia.

23.WalkingUpandDownforGoodHealth

Inthefivepartsof India,bothmonksandlaymenareinthehabitoftakingawalk,goingstraightforwardandcomingbackalongthesamerouteatpropertimeswhen theyfeellikeit,buttheydonottakewalksinnoisyplaces.First,itcuresdiseases,andsecond,ithelpsdigestion.Whennoontimeisapproaching,orwhenthesunistothewest, itistimetotakea walk.Theymayeithergo outof themonasteryforalongwalk,orjuststrollslowlyinthecorri­dor.Ifonedoesnotdoso,oneis liabletosufferfromillness,beingoftentroubledbyswellingof thelegsandofthestomach,orpainintheelbowsorintheshoulders,orwithphlegmaticsymptomswhichwillnotdissolve.Alltheseailmentsarecausedbyoursed­entaryposture.If onecantakethisexercise,one willhaveahealthybodyandincreaseone’sspiritualcultivation.

SotherearepathsonwhichtheWorld-honoredOneusedto

takewalksatVulturePeak,underthebodhitree,atDeerPark,inthecityofRajagrha,andatotherholysites.Theyareabout

twocubitswide,fourteenorfifteencubitslong,twocubitshigh,221c

andbuiltwithbricks.Onthesurface[ofeachofthepaths],thereare

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fourteenorfifteenlimestonesculpturesof bloominglotusflowersabouttwocubitshighandonefootindiameter,symbolizingthefootprintsof theHolyOne.Atbothendsof thepaths,therearesmallcaityas,equaltoaman’sheight,inwhichstandingstatues

ofSakyamuniaresometimesinstalled.Onegoesroundacaitya

ju stasonegoesroundatemple,withone’s rightshouldertowardstheveneratedobject.Asthisisaspecialmeritoriousdeed,oneshouldperformitwithpietyandrespect.

Takingawalkforexerciseisawaytostimulatedigestionandrelieveboredom.Itismeanttopreservegoodhealthortocureillness.Itwasformerlyknown&sxing-dao(walkingalongtheWay)orasjing-xing(takinga walk),bothof whichhavethesamemean­ing,withoutanydifference.Butthishealth-preservingexercisehasbeenlackinginChinafora longtime.Itissaid inascripture,“Theywalkedwhilelookingatthetrees.”Ihaveseenthepathused[bytheBuddha]fortakingwalksbesidetheDiamondSeat,butIdidnotseeanyoftheroundpedestals.

24.TheJuniorWorshipingtheSenior

TheritesofsalutationshouldbepracticedaccordingtotheBuddhasteachings.Amonkwhoseseniorityisdeterminedbythemeasurementofashadow[withasundial]atthetimeofre­ceivingfullordinationisentitledto besalutedbyhisjuniors.TheBuddhasaid,“Therearetwokindsof menwhoareworthytobesaluted.First,theTathagata(onewhohasattainedBuddhahood),andsecond,seniorbhiksus.”Sincethisisthegoldenwordof theBuddha,whyshouldwetakethetroubletobehumbleand timo­rous?Whenajuniormonkseesaseniorone,heshouldexpress

respectinapolitemanner,utteringtheword“Vande”(“Isalute”)whileheworshipstheseniormonk.Whenaseniormonkiswor­shipedbyajunior^me,hemayjustsitupstraightwithhishands

infrontandsay“Arogya”(“Mayyoubehealthy!”).(Yijing’srun­ningnote:Thisisaformofblessing,meaning“Mayyoubefreefromillness.”)Iftheydonotsaythesewords,bothofthemareat

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fault.[Theonewhoissaluted]mayremainstandingorsittingashe is,withoutchanginghis posture. Since he isentitledto receivesalutation,heneednotsaluteinreturn.SuchistheruleforthemonksofthefivepartsofIndia.

Howcanajuniormonkexpectasenioronetostandupwhen

thesalutationisabouttotakeplace? Norshouldthesenior monk,whilereceivingsalutation,fearthathemightdispleaseorannoythe juniorone.Ifso,thehonoredonewouldgetholdofthe juniormonktopreventhimfrompayinghomage,whilesaying,“Donttakethetrouble!”Thusthejuniormonkwouldtryhardtosalutetheseniorone,buthecouldnotreachtheground[toprostratehimself].I ftheydidnotbehaveso,theywouldbecriticizedasactingagainstetiquette!Alas!Theydisregardtheholyteachingstosatisfytheirhumanfeelings.Boththeonewhoispayingre­spectandtheonewhoisrespectedareactingagainsttherules.Weshouldmakeadeepstudyofthispoint.Alongstreamhasbeenoverflowingforalongtime,andwhowouldtrytobringit

undercontrolwithadam?

25.BehaviorbetweenTeacherandPupil

Theinstructionof pupilsisanimportantfactorfortheprosperity[of theDharma],Ifwedo notpay attentiontoit,theextinctionoftheDharmamaybeexpected.Wemusttakeprecautionarymea­suresaboutthematter,andmustnotletit*lipoff[asafishslips

off]thenet.

ItissaidintheVinaya:“Earlyeverymorning,apupilshouldfirstchewtoothwood,andthencometohisteachertoofferhimtoothwood,gleditsia[usedforsoap],water,andatowel,whichareputatthesittingplace.Whenthesethingsareproperlyar­ranged,hegoestoworshiptheholyimageoftheBuddha,walksroundtheshrinehall,andthenreturnstohisteacher’splace,wherehe,havingtidieduphisrobe,makesasalutationwithoutstand­ingup.Puttinghispalmstogether,hetouchesthegroundwith

hisheadthreetimes,andwhilekneelingonthegroundwithhis222a

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headboweddownandhishandsjoinedtogether,heinquiresofhisteacher,‘Maymyupadhydyabea ttentive!”’(Yijing’srun­ningnote:Upameans“nearto,”andadhyaya,“ateacher.”InIndiawell-learnedpeoplearegenerallycalledwu-she,whichisnotaclassicalterm[butacorruptabbreviation].AccordingtoSanskritscripturesanddisciplinarytexts,thewordupadhydya,meaningapersonalteacher,isused.Inthe variousnortherncoun­tries,thewordispronouncedashe-she,andthetranslatorsadoptedit[toindicateamonk]erroneously.)Orthepupilmaysay,Maymydcaryabeattentive!”(Yijing’srunningnote:Acaryaistranslatedas“instructor.”Heiscompetenttoinstructthepu­

pil inreligiousrites.Formerlyitwasmistransliteratedasa-she-li.)“NowI begtoinquirewhethertheupadhydyahassleptwelllastnight,whetherhisfourelements[ofthephysicalbody]are

inpeaceandharmony,whetherheiseasyandagileinm ove­mentandhasagooddigestion,andwhetherheisreadytotakehismorningmeal.”Theseinquiriesmaybelengthyorbriefac­cordingtocirc*mstances.

Theteacheranswerstheinquiriesaccordingtowhetherheisateaseornot,asthecasemaybe.Thenthepupilgoestotheadjoiningroomstosalutehisseniors.Next,hereadsashortsec­tionof ascriptureandmemorizeswhathehas learnedbefore.Hestudiesnewlessonseverydayandreviewshisoldacquirementseachmonth,withoutwastingasinglemoment.Heshouldwaitafterdaybreak,andthenaskpermissionof histeachertotakethemorningmeal,i fhehasagoodappetiteforit.Heneednottakethetroubletoseekporridgebeforedawn,insuchhasteasnottoaskpermissionofhisteacher,withoutchewingtoothwood,norhavingtimetoascertainthatthewater[forhisdailyuse]isfreefrominsects,andevenwithouthavingwashedandcleansedhim­self.Doeshe notknowthatforthesakeof onebowlof porridge,heisactingagainstthefourpointsoftheBuddha’steaching?Thecausesoferrorsanddegeneraciescomefromthisviolation.IwishthatthosewhomaintainandsupporttheDharmawillconsiderthematterwell.(Yijing’srunningnote:Theabove-mentionedinquiries

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areaccordingtotherulestaughtinAryadesa[theholyland],aryameaning“holy,”anddesa,“land,”thatis,the westerncountryofIndia.Saintsandsagesemergedthereoneafteranother,hence

thenamecommonlyusedbythepeople.ItisalsoknownasMadhyadesa[theMidland Country],asitisinthemiddleof mil­lionsof countries.Owingtothisfact,thenameisknowntoall.InthecountriesoftheHutribesofthenorth,theholylandisonlyknownasXi-du[Sindhu],whichisnotapopularname,butadia­lecticalappellationwithoutanyspecialmeaning.WhenthisnameisheardinIndia,mostpeopledo notknowwhereitis,andso itisfittingtocall IndiatheHolyLand,whichisasuitablename.Or,itissaidbytraditionthatthewordInduistranslatedas“moon,”whichiscorrect,butitisnotapopulardesignation.ItisjustliketheLandofGreatTangbeingknowninIndiaasCina,whichissimplyanamewithoutspecialmeaning.Furthermore,weshouldknowthatthefivepartsofIndiaarecollectivelyknownastheBrahmanicCountry,whilethecountryof Suriinthenorthisin­cludedinthe territoryoftheHutribes.Theyshouldnotbemixedupandcalledbyoneandthesamename.)

Whenonehasreceivedfullordination,afterhavingshaved

one’s hairandputontheplainrobeof ahomelessmonk,onehastoaskpermissionofone’s teachertodoanything, withtheexcep­tion,accordingtotheVinaya,offivethings;otherwiseonewillincurfault.Thefivethingsare(1)chewingtoothwood,(2)drink­ingwater,(3)excretingstools,(4)passing water,and(5)perform­ingacaitya-vandana(goingroundatemple)withinforty-ninefathomsinsideaconsecratedboundary.

Forinstance,whenitistimetotakeameal,thepupilshould

gotoaskpermissionof histeacher,whomheshouldsaluteaccord­ingtotherulesofsalutation,andthensaytohim,Maymyupadhydyabeattentive!NowIaskyourpermissiontowashmyhandsandalmsbowltotakeameal.”Theteachershouldsay,“Becarefulaboutit !” Thepermissionrequiredfordoingotherthingsisaskedinthesameway.Afterconsideringthematterandthetimefordoingit,theteacherthengiveshispermissionordisallowance.

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Ifthepupilhasmanythingstodo,hemayaskpermissiontodoallofthematonetime.

When,after fivesummers,thepupilhasmasteredthe Vinaya,hemayleavehisupadhyayatotravelintheworldtopursueothersubjectsofstudy.Butwhereverhegoes,hemustdependona

222bteacher.Itisonlyafterthecompletionoftensummer[retreats]thathemayceasetodependonateacher.TheGreatSagewassothoughtfulandconsiderateastohavelaiddownthisrule.IfamonkisnotconversantwiththeVinaya,hewillhavetodependonateachertilltheendofhislife.I fthereisnoseniorteacheravailable,hemaystaywithajunioroneanddoallduties,exceptsalutation,tohim.[Inthatcase,]thepupildoesnotinquireafter[histeacher’s] healtheverymorningandaskwhetherhehasnotliveduptotheVinayarules.Wheneverhehasanythingtodo,heshouldask forhisteacher’spermission.Orhemayask forinstruc­tionsinthemorningandintheevening,buttheadmonitiongivenatthemomentmaynotbecongruentwiththeintentof theVinaya.If thepupilwhoasksforinstructionscannotmakehispointclear,howcantheteacherwhor*spondstohisrequestgivehimanygoodconsultation?Thisisnotthewayofaskingforinstructions.Sincesuchahabithasbeenhandeddownforalongtime,whowouldcaretotakethetroubletomakeapoint-by-pointexamina­tionofit?IfwepracticeinaccordancewiththeteachingsoftheBuddha,theDharmawillbemaintained withoutinterruption.Ifonethinksthatthisisaninsignificantmatter,whatelseisimpor­tant?Thus,itissaidinaVinayatext,“Betterto beabutcher thantogivefullordinationtoothersandleavethemuntaught!”

Accordingtothemannerof servingone’steacherhandeddownmIndia,a pupilshouldgoto histeacheratthefirstwatchandthelastwatchofthenight.Theteacherfirstinviteshimtositdowncomfortably,andthenteacheshimapassagefromtheTripitaka(thethreecollectionsoftheBuddhistcanon)thatissuitableforthetime,leavingno factortheory unexpounded.Heexamineshispupilsmoralconducttopreventhimfromcommittingdefectsandviolatingthedisciplinaryrules.Wheneverhefindsthathispupil

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hascommittedanyfault,headviseshimtorepentandconfess.Then the pupilmassagesthebody of histeacher andfolds his robestidily,orsometimessweepstheroomandthe courtyard, andin­spects thewaterto seethatno insect is in it before it is sent to theteacher.Whateveristobedone,thepupildoesforhisteacher.Thisishowapupilrespectshisteacher.

Ifapupilfallsill,theteacherpersonallyattendshimwithmedi­

cineandfeelssuchanxietyashewouldfeelifthepupilwerehisownchild.Butaccordingtotheguidingprinciplesof theBuddha’steaching,instructionandedificationarefirstandforemost,justasacakravartin(auniversal monarch)paysgreatattentionto foster­ingandeducatinghiseldestson.ThisisclearlylaiddownintheVinaya,andtherearenogroundsforustoholditincontempt.

Asregardstheabove-mentionedcaitya-vandeorcaitya-vandana,itissaidthatwhentheGreatTeacher,the World-hon­oredOne,hadenterednirvana,menandgodsassembledtocremate

hisremains.Theycollectedfragrantfirewoodandbuiltabigfu­neralpile.Thatplacewasknownasciti,meaningapile,whichgaverisetothenameofcaitya.Thereareotherexplanations.First,itisanobjectwhichinspiresonetomeditatethatallthe virtuesoftheWorld-honoredOneareaccumulatedhere,andsecond,itisbuiltbypilingupbricksandearth.Themeaningofthewordishandeddownassuch.Oritiscalledastupa,whichhasthesame

meaningascaitya.Formerly,itwasgenerallycalledta(pagoda)orzhi-ti(acorruptionofcaitya).Bothofthesetermsareincorrect,butbothmaybeused,becausepeopleunderstandwhatisactuallyimpliedwithoutdelvingintotheirmeanings.

Brieflyspeaking,therearetwowaysofexplainingatermin

India: first, fora term withameaning,andsecond, foratermwith­outameaning.Atermthathasameaninghasareasonforitscoinage, whichisinterpretedaccordingto its meaning,and thetermanditssubstancearealwayscoincidentwitheachother.Forin­stance,theinterpretationofthenameShanru(“well-enteringinto

truth”)isthatitwasfirstinventedaccordingtoaman’sdeeds222c

ofvirtue,andsoitisanamecoinedaccordingtoitsmeaning.When

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itbecom esfamilia rtothepeople,theywillnotdelveintoitsmeaning,butcalltheman“well-enteringintotruth,”simplybecausetheworldcallshimso.Thenamebecomesthusatermwithoutameaning.

Vandanameanssalutation.Whenone wishesto go outtowor­shiptheBuddha’simage,i fsomeoneinquires,“Whereareyougoing?”onemayreply,“Iamgoingtosuchandsuchaplacetoworshipthecaitya.”Salutationisamannerofpayingrespecttoonessuperiorswithasenseofhumility.Whenoneisgoingtopayhomageortoaskpermission[ofone’steacher],oneshouldfirstadjustone’sreligiousrobetodrapeovertheleftshoulder,andpresstherobeundertheleftarmpittomakeitfittightlytothebody,whilestretchingone’slefthanddownwardstogetholdoftheleftsideoftherobe.Therighthandfollowstherobedowntocoverthebody.Whentheskirtbecomeslower,therobeshouldberolleduptotheknees,sothatbothkneesarewellcovered,with­outexposingthebody.Theedgeoftherobeatthebackisquicklymadetosticktothebody.Boththerobeand theskirtareheldinsuchawayasnottotouchtheground.[Whenoneiskneel­ingdown]thetwoheelsarepointingupwards,withthebackandneckinastraightline.Thetenfingersarespreadonthegroundbeforeonebowsone’sheaddown,withnopartoftherobeorany­thingelseusedaspadding undertheknees.Oneshouldagain joinone’shandspalmtopalmandtouchthegroundwithone’sheadoncemore.Inthismanneronepiouslymakessalutationthreetimes.Atordinarytimes,onesalutationissuflicient;thereisno

rulethatrequiresonetostandupandthentokneeldownagain.ShouldthepeopleofIndiaseeonesalutingandstandingupcon­secutivelythreetimes,theywouldmarvelatit.

Ifonefearsthattheremightbedustonone’sforehead,onemayrubitoffwithone’shandandthenwipeitclean.Next,oneshouldwipeawaythedustonone’sknees.Afteradjustingone’srobe,oneshouldsitatonesideorstand fora while.Theelder monkshouldaskhimtotakeaseat,butifthepupil is beingreprimanded,itisharmlessforhimtoremainstanding.Suchisthetradition

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uninterruptedlyhandeddownfromteachertopupil fromthetimeoftheBuddhauptothepresentageofdegeneration.ItissaidinthescripturesandtheVinayatextsthatwhenoneapproachedtheBuddha,oneshouldworshiphimathisfeetandsitdownatoneside,butitisnevermentionedthatoneshouldspreadthesittingmat,worshipthreetimes,andstandatoneside.Suchisthe teaching.Intheplacewherean elder is,manyseats should beprepared,sothatwhenpeople cometheymaysit in aproperman­ner.Whenone sits down,one’sfeet touchthe ground.Thereis nocustomofsittingdownwithone’skneesrestingontheground.

ItissaidintheVinayathatoneshouldfirstassumethe

utkutakaposture,whichistranslatedas“asquatting posture,”withbothfeetplaced flatonthegroundandbothkneespointingupwards,therobesbeingtightly wrappedonthebodywithoutfallingonthe ground.Thisistheregularpostureforperformingtheceremonyofkeepingsurplusrobes,etc.,aspure(legitimate)alms,ormakingaconfessioninthepresenceofother monks,orexpressingrespecttoanassembly,oraskingforpardonwhenoneisbeingreprimanded,orworshipingthemonkswhenreceivingfullordination.Inallsuchcases,thepostureisthesame.

Oronemaykneeldownontheground,keepingthe backerectwithhands joinedpalmtopalm.ThisistheposturetopraiseandgazewithreverenceattheBuddha’sstatueonanaltar.Butwor­

shipingonacouchisnotdoneinanycountry[exceptChina],nor223a

doesoneseethecustomofspreadingafeltmat[forworshiping].Is it justifiableto beso insolent whileoneintendsto berespectful?Whenoneisonacouchoramat,oneshouldnotpayrespecttoothersevenatordinarytimes,letalonewhenworshipingoneshonoredteacherortheGreatMaster.Howcansuchathingbe

permissible?

Inthelecturehallsanddiningrooms[of themonasteries]inIndia,no big couchesare provided,but therearea largenumberofblocksof woodandsmallchairspreparedforthemonkstositonwhile listening to a lecture orhavinga meal.Such was the originalcustom.InChina,themonkshavelongbeenusedtosittingcross-legged

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onbigcouches.Althoughcustomsmaybechangedaccordingtocirc*mstancesfromtimetotime,oneshouldknowwhatwastheoriginaltraditionandwhatarelaterderivatives.

26.ConducttowardsVisitorsandFriends

InthedayswhentheGreatTeacher,thefounderofthereligion,waslivingintheworld,heusedtosay“welcom e”wheneveravis­itingbhiksuarrived.ThemonksofthemonasteriesinIndiafollowtherulethatwhentheyseeanewcomerarriving,whetherheisavisitor,anoldfriend,adisciple,apupil,oranacquaintance,

theygoforwardtogreethimwiththeutterance“ Suagata, ”whichistranslatedas“welcome.”Shouldthenewcomerbeaguest,thewordSusvagata,translatedas“heartywelcome,”mustbepro­nounced.Ifonedoesnotsaythesewords,oneinfringesuponthemonasticregulationsandisalsoguiltyaccordingtotherulesoftheVinaya.Nomatterwhetherthenewcomerisaseniorora

juniormonk,thisisdoneallthesame.

Then[thehost]takesoffthevisitor’swaterja randalmsbowl,hangs themuponpegsfixedonthewall,andpreparesaseatinaproperplaceforhimtorest.If thevisitorisajuniormonk,heisledtoasecludedplace,andi f heis asenior one,heis invitedto sitmthefrontchamber.Ifthehostisjuniortotheguest,heshould,inhonorof hissenior,massagehiscalvesuptothewholebody.Ifthehostisseniorto theguest,heonly repeatedlystrokestheguest’sback,butnotdowntohiswaist andfeet.Ifbothofthemareof thesameage,thentherewillbenodifferenceinthematter.

When[thenewcomer]has recoveredfromfatigue,hewasheshishandsandfeetandproceedstothesuperior,whomhewor­shipsonlyonce.Whilekneelingontheground,hetouchesthesuperior’sfeet.Thesuperiorstretcheshisrighthandtostroketheshouldersandbackof theguest.Butif ithasnotbeenalongtimesincetheyhaveseeneachother,thesuperiorneednotstroketheguestwithhishand.Thentheteacherinquiresafterhishealth,andthediscipleanswersaccordingtocirc*mstances.Afterthat

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theguestwithdrawstoonesideandsitsdownwithduerespect.Thereisnocustomofstandingatoneside.ThegeneralruleinIndiaistositonsmallblocksof wood,andeverybodyisbarefoot.SincethisisnotthecustominChina,theetiquetteofholdinganotherperson’sfeetis notpracticed there.Itissaidinthescrip­turesthatmenandgodscametotheBuddha,bowedtheirheadsdowntohisfeet,andthenwithdrewtositatonesideintheman­

nerasmentionedabove.

Atthechosentime,hotwaterorotherdrinksareofferedtotheguest.Ghee,honey,andgranulatedsugarmaybetakenatwill.Asfortheothereight kindsof syrup,they mustbefilteredandmadeclearbeforeonedrinksthem.Iftheyarethickwithdregs,theyaredefinitelynotallowed[tobetakenasbeverages].

Asthe juiceofapricotsandthelikeisthick,itisreasonablethatit*houldbetotallybannedasabeverage.ItissaidintheVinaya: “Syrupmustbestrained untilthecolorbecomesas yel­lowishasthereed.”Sucharetheritesofhospitalityforreceiving

guestsinIndia,whethertheyareteachers,pupils,visitors,orac-223b

quaintances.Itisimproperforonetoperformhe-nan(salutation)inhastewhenonehasjustputdownonesgarmentsandcapafterarrivingataplace,havingtraveledthroughseverecoldweather

orunderthescorchingsun,with perspirationall overone’sbody,or withhandsand feetbenumbedwithcold.Suchheedlessbehav­ior is deeply againsttherules of decency.Whatis more,theteacherallowstheguesttostand theregossipingaboutirrelevantmat­ters.How can suchamanof excessiveimpetuositybeable tomaketheDharmacontinueandprosper?

Thewordhe-nanisderivedfromtheSanskritvandeorvandana

(worshiping),translatedas“payinghomage.”Asthetranslitera­tionisincorrect,itispronouncedhe-nan.Sincetheoldtranslit­erationcannotbealtered,peoplestillsayhe-nan.Ifweadoptthecorrectpronunciation,itshouldbesaidasvande.

Whenoneisontheroad,orinacrowd,itisunsuitabletomake

salutations;onemayjustjointhehandspalmtopalm,lowerthehead,andutterthewordvande.Thusitissaidinascripture,“Puttingthehandstogetherpalmtopalm,orevenloweringthe

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headalittle,isalsoawayofpayinghomage.”Peopleofthesouthdonotknowthattheirbehaviorseeminglyconformswiththeregu­

lations.Iftheycouldchangetheirunawarenessintosayingvande,

theirbehaviorwouldbeperfect,asisordainedintheVinaya.

27.TheTreatmentofDisease

AsIhavesaidbefore,oneshouldconsiderwhetheroneisfeelinglightorh e a v y -t h a tis,seewhetherone’sfour physicalelementsarestrongorweak—beforeonetakes breakfast.I f onefeelslightandbrisk,onemayeatthemealas usual,buti fanythingis wrong,onemustfindoutthecause.Whenthecauseofdiscomforthasbeenfound,oneshouldrest.Whenone is feelinglightand healthy,onewillfeelashungryasif afirewereburninginside,andthenonemaytakefoodatbreakfasttime.Daybreakisusuallycalledthetimeofphlegm,” whentheremnantfluidof foodtakenbeforethenightisstillcrammedinthechestandhasnotyetdispersed;foodtakenatthistime isacauseof trouble.It isjustlikethrowingfuelintoablazingfire.Thefuelwillbeconsumedbytheflames,butifstrawis placedonafirenotyetbrightlyburning,thestrawwillremainthere,whilethefirewillnotburn.

BreakfastisspeciallypermittedbytheBuddha.Whetheritisporridgeorcookedrice,the mealistakenaccordingtoone’sphysi­calcondition.I f onecansubsist onporridgealoneinordertoprac­ticetheWay,onemayjusteatitwithout takinganythingelse.Ifonewishestoeatcookedriceforthenourishmentofthebody,itisharmlesstotakecookedriceinthemorning.I fanyfoodcausesdiscomforttothebody,itisasourceof illness.Donotsaythatoneisillwhenoneonlyhasaheadacheorislyinginbed.Whennoothermedicineiscurative,aphysicianmayprescribe“untimelyfoodforthepatient,andthe Buddhasaidthatitmightbeservedinasecludedplace.Nomonkisallowedtotakefoodatirregularhoursexceptbytheprescriptionofaphysician.

Accordingtotheloreof medicine,oneof thefiveloresof India,aphysicianshouldfirstexaminethevoiceandcountenanceofhis

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patient,andthenprescribeforhiminaccordancewiththeeightbranchesofmedicalknowledge.Ifhedoesnotunderstandthese­cretofthisknowledge,hewillcauseadverseeffectsthoughheintendedtoproduceadvantageousresults.Theeightbranchesofmedicalknowledgeare:(1)thetreatmentof allkindsof ulcers;(2)thetreatmentof ailmentsofthehead byacupuncture;(3) thetreat­mentofdiseasesofthebody;(4)thetreatmentofillnessescaused

bydemons;(5)thetreatmentofsicknesswithagada(antidotal)22 3cmedicine;(6)thetreatmentofchildren’sdiseases;(7)theartoflongevity;and(8)themethodofstrengtheningthelegsandbody.

Ulcersareof twokinds,internalandexternal.Ailmentsof theheadarethoseillnessesthattroubleonlythehead.Diseasesbe­lowtheneckarecalledbodilydiseases.Discomfortcausedbyde­monsisacomplaintinducedbyevildemons.Agadaisapanaceaforcounteractingallkindsofpoison.Theword“childrenindi­catesinfantsfromthestageof anembryouptotheageof sixteenyears.Longevitymeanstokeepthebodyhealthysoastolivelong.

Whenthelegsareenergetic,thebodywillbestrongandhealthy.Theseeightartsofhealingwereformerlycontainedineightbooks.Latelythey havebeenabridged intoonebundle[of palmleaves].InthefivepartsofIndia,[allphysicians]practicemedicineaccordingtothisbook.Thephysicianswhoarewelllearnedinitareallpaidwithofficialsalaries.Therefore,physiciansaregreatly

honoredinIndia.Merchantsandtradersarealsoheldinesteem,astheydonotinjurelifebutbenefitthemselvesandhelpothersatthesametime.Ihavealsospentsometimeinstudyingtheloreofmedicine,butasitwasnotmyproperdutyIabandonedthe

pursuitatlast.

Moreover,weshouldknowthatthemedicinalherbsof IndiaaredifferentfromthoseofChina.Whatisfoundinonecountrymaynotbefoundintheother, andsotheyarenotthesameinthetwocountries.Forinstance,suchherbsasginseng,tuckahoe,Chineseangelica,polygala,aconite,monkshood,Chineseephe­dra,asarum,andthelikearethebestmedicinal herbsinChina,butIdidnotseeanyofthemwhenImadeinquiriesaboutthem

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inIndia.InIndiathereisabundantharltaki(yellowmyrobalan),andinthenorthernpartonemaysometimesfindturmeric,whilethewesternfrontierisrichinferula.Asmallquantityofcamphor

isproducedin[theislandsof]theSouthSeas.Allthreespeciesofcardamomare growninDvarapati,whilethetwo kindsof clovesareproducedinthecountry of Kun-lun.OnlytheseherbsareneededinChina;allothermedicinalherbsarenotworthgathering.

Whenthebody,whichismadeupofthefourelements,isill,theillnessiscausedinallcasesbyovereatingorfatigue,orbytakingamealearlyinthemorningwhenthefoodtakenbeforethenighthasnotbeendischarged,orbyeatingagainatnoonwhenbreakfasthasnotbeendigested.Forthesereasons,choleradevelops.Onebelchesconsecutivelyforseveralnights,andthebellyisswollenformorethantendays.ThenoneseeksexpensivemedicinestocurethekidneysandtriestogetcostlyGentianamacrophylla.Arichmancanaffordtodoso,butapoormancanliveonlyaslongasthemorningdew.Whatcanonedo tosavethelifeofsuchapoormanwhenheisattackedbyillness?Evenif agoodphysiciancameinthemorningtoofferpillsandmedicinal

powder,theywouldbeofnoeffect.EvenifBianque[thehighlyskilledphysician]visitedhimintheeveningwithmedicaldecoc­tionsand plasters,hecouldnotsavehislife.Moxibustionandacu­punctureappliedtohimarejustasi fputonwoodorstone.Hecouldonlyshakehislegsandhead;otherwisehewouldbenodifferentfromacorpse.

Allthisisduetoignoranceofthecausesofillnessandnotunderstandinghowtotakegoodcareofoneselfsoastorecuper­ate.Itis liketryingto stopastreamwithoutdammingupitssource,orcuttingatreewithoutremoving itsroots,sothatthecurrentwillspreadandthebranches willsproutagainwithoutbeingextirpated.TheresultisthatthosewhoengageinstudyingthescripturesandcommentariesonlygazeattheTripitakawithceaselesssighs[overtheirenfeebledbodies],andthosewhopracticemeditationcanonly

imaginethementalstateoftheeightkindsofsamadhi(intentconcentration)withlonglamentations.Layscholarswhoaimat

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achievingtheDoctorateofClassicscurbtheirbridlesattheGate24aof theGoldenHorse[beingpreventedby illness fromenteringthatgovernmenthouse],andthosewhoaretryingtocompeteforthepositionofAdvancedScholarhaltoutsidetheShi-qu-ge(theIm­perialLibrary).IsitnotagreathindrancethatimpedesonefromcultivatingtheWayandperforminggooddeeds?Itisnot,indeed,

asmallmatterto loseone’sgoodreputeandglory.So Ihavemadethisnarration—Ihopethatmy readerswillnotdeemitprolixandrepetitious—sothatchroniccomplaintsmaybecuredwithoutthetreatmentof aphysician.Whenthefourelements[of thephysicalbody]arewellregulated,onewillneverbeaffectedbyanykindofdisease.Isitnotbeneficialtodogoodforoneselfaswellasothers?

Ifoneispoisonedtodeath[inthecourseoftakingmedicine],itistheresultofone’sdeedsdoneinapreviouslife.Yet,inourpresentlife,itisnecessarytoavoid[whatisundesirable] andtake[whatisbeneficial].

28.RulesforTakingMedicine

All livingcreatures withoutexceptionareliabletosufferfromail­mentscausedbydisordersof thefourelements;andtheeightsea­sonalchanges,comingoneafteranother,mayinduceillnessatnofixedtime.Wheneveroneisill,oneshouldrestatonce.Therefore,theWorld-honoredOnesaidwhendeliveringtheSutraonMedi­calPrescriptions:“Thedisordersofthefourelementsareasfol­lows:(1)guru(indigestion),(2)kapha(phlegm),(3)pitta(bile),and(4)vata(wind).”Thefirstisanincreaseoftheelementofearth,whichcausesthebodytofeelheavy;thesecondisanaccu­mulationoftheelementofwater,whichcausesexcessivesnivelandsaliva;thethirdistheburningoftheelementof fire,whichmakestheheadandcheststronglyfeverish;andthefourthisagreatagitationof theelementofwind,whichmakesonepantwith

astrikingandrushingbreath.ThesefourcorrespondwithwhatareknowninChinaasseriousheaviness,phlegmaticillness,

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yellowfever,andtheburstingofbreath.Butif wediscussdiseaseaccordingtopopularpathology,thereareonlythreekindsof ill­ness,namely,ailmentscausedbywind,feverishmaladies,andphlegmaticsickness.Seriousheavinessissubstantiallyidenticalwithphlegmaticillness,withoutbeingseparatelyelucidatedaspertainingtotheelementofearth.

Inordertofindoutthecauseofadisease,oneshouldexamineoneself earlyinthemorning.I f onefeelsthatthefourelementsareabnormaloroutof order,oneshouldfirstrefrainfromeating.Evenifoneisverythirsty,onemustnotdrinkanyjuiceorwater.Thisutmostabstinenceshouldbeobservedforoneortwodays,orsometimesforfourorfivedays,untilthediseaseiscured.Thisistherightthingforone todo,butthereis no fixeddurationforit.Ifonefeelsthatthereisfoodremainingundigestedinthestomach,oneshouldpressthenavelandthechestwithone’sfingersstretchedlikea fork.Itis goodforonetodrinka largequantityofhotwaterandthrustafingerintothethroattocausethefoodtoejectout.Oneshoulddrinkwateragainandvomitoncemore,tillthestomachiscompletelyemptied.Drinkingcoldwaterisalsoharmless.Hotwaterwithdrygingersoakedinitisawonderfulcure.Onthatdayfoodmustbe cutoff,andonemaybreakthefastonthefollowingmorning.Ifitis difficultforoneto fastforaday,temporaryadjustmentsmaybearrangedaccordingtocircum­stances.Ifone ishavingahighfever,oneshouldparticularlyavoidtakingacoldshowerbath.I f onefeelsseriouslyheavyandisshiv­eringwithcold,itisgoodforonetoremainnearafire,butthisisinapplicableinthehotanddampplacessouthoftheYangziRiverandintheFiveRanges.Itisthelocalcustomoftheseplacestotakeacoldshowerbathwhenoneishavingafever.

Inthecaseof acuterheumatoidarthritis,ointment maybeapplied,anditisalsogoodtouseahotballof clothtoheattheaffectedpartofthebody.Theapplicationofheatedoilwillpro­duceanimmediateeffect.

Onemayfeelphlegmfillingthechest,withsalivaoozingin­cessantlyoutof themouth,andclearmucusflowingfromthenose.

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Breathmayaccumulateinthepharynx.Thethroatissometimes

chokedwhenthemouthisoverfullwithfoodsothatonecannot224b

speakproperly,andfoodanddrinkbecometastelessforaslongassometendays.Merelybyfasting,suchcomplaintsmaybecuredwithouttakingthetroubleofcauterizingthehead,noris itneces­sarytoresorttomassagingthethroat.Sucharethegeneralprin­ciplesbywhichmedicinecancureadiseasewithout usingmedicaldecoctions.

Iconjecturethatwhenundigestedfoodisremoved,highfever

willabate,andthatwhenthe flowing saliva isexhausted, phleg­maticdiseasewillbecured.I f theinternalorgansremainquiet,andevilairis dispersed,violentwindwillcease by itself.Nothingwillgowrongif oneregulatesthe physiqueinthismanner.Oneneed not trouble a physician to feelone’spulse, nor is itneedfultoconsultawitchdoctor.Eachpersonisthenakingof physicians,andeveryonebecomesaJivaka[awell-knownphysicianatthetimeoftheBuddha].

AsregardsthemethodoftheDharmamasterTanluan,who

couldcurehisownailmentsbyregulatinghisbreath,itcouldbepracticedonlybyhermits.TheDhyanamasterHuisicouldextractevilinfluencesfromhisbodybycomposinghismindinabstractmeditation,butthisisunknowabletocommonpeople.Ifitisnec­essarytoconsultareputablephysicianintheeasterncapitalofLuo-yang,apoormanwill bestoppedattheford[forwantof moneytopaytheboatman].Whenitisnecessarytoseekthebestherbsinthewesternsuburbs,thesolitaryandchildlesswilllosetheirway.Thefastingmentionedabovecostsnomoneyandiswonder­fulasatreatment.Asitcanbeappliedbyboththerichandthepoor,isitnotanimportantremedy?

Withtheabruptappearanceofcarbuncleoracne,hotblood

willrushupallofasudden,andboththehandsandfeet willfeelirritatedandpainful.Atthem omentwhensuchdiseasesastheplague,punishmentssentbyheaven,bodilywoundscausedby asword oranarrow,fractures resultingfromstum­blingandfalling,typhoidfever,acutegastroenteritis,half-day

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diarrhea,headaches,anginapectoris,soresaroundtheeyes,tooth­aches,andthelike,havebeguntoarise,oneshouldstartfasting.

Apillmadeofthreecomponentswillcurevariousdiseases,anditisnotdifficulttoobtain.Takeharltaklbark,dryginger,andgranulatedsugar,allequalinquantity.Poundthefirsttwointopowder,andthenmixthepowderwiththesugarinafewdropsofwatertoknead themixtureintopills.Abouttenpillsinthemorn­ingisthelimit,andoneisnottoabstainfromeating.Nomorethantwoorthreedoseswillbesufficienttocureapatientwithdiarrhea.Itwillbreakupgasinthestomach,dispersecold,andhelpdigestion.Asitiswidelyuseful,Ihavementionedithere.Ifnogranulatedsugarisavailable,maltoseorhoneywilldo.Ifonecouldchewonepieceofharltakiandswallowthejuiceeveryday,onewouldbefreefromdiseasethroughoutone’swholelife.

ThismedicallorewashandeddownbyIndra.Asoneofthefivesciences,itispracticedinallofthefivepartsof India.Amongitsmethodsoftreatment,themostimportantoneisfasting.Theoldtranslatorssaidthatwhenapatientwasnotcuredafterhavingfastedforsevendays,hemightinvoketheaidofAvalokitesvara.InChina,mostpeopledonotunderstandthismethodandthinkofitasaseparatesystemofreligiousfasting;thustheydonotcaretostudyit.Thisisbecausethetranslatorsdidnotunderstandtheartofhealing.Thosewhosufferfromillnessescausedbytakingcinnabarand crystal[forimmortality],orfromachronicdisease,suchasalumpinthebelly,mayalsoapplythismethod.(Yijing’srunningnote:ButI fearthatitmightbeunsuitableforthosewhotakecinnabarandcrystaltogohungry.Thecinnabardrugthatenablesonetolevitateisnotfoundinanyothercountry,andtheeatingof [pulverized]crystalispracticedonlyinChina.Butsomekindsofcrystalormoonstonemayproducefire,andiftheyaretaken,thebodywillexplode.Aspeopleof thepresentdaycannotdistinguishthem,numerousmenhavediedin vain[of thisbad prac­tice],Thusweshouldbedeeplyawareoftheharmfulnessofthis.)

Poisoningcausedbysnakebiteorscorpionsting cannotbecuredbythistreatment[fasting].Whenoneisfasting,roamingabout

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anddoinghardworkshouldbestrictlyavoided.Along-distance224c

travelermaygoonhiswaywithoutharmeveni f heisfasting,butheshould restafterhisrecuperation,andeatnewlycookedriceordrinkanyamountofwell-boiledmungbeansoup,seasonedwithfragrantgianthyssop.Ifhefeelschilly,hemayaddpepper,gin­ger,andPiperlongumtothesoup.Ifheknowsthatitisacold,scalliona n dNepetajaponicashouldbeputintothesoup.Itis saidinaworkonmedicinethatallpungentthingsareliabletopro­motecold,withtheexceptionofdryginger,andsoitisalsogoodtoaddthemtothesoup.Ondaysoffasting,oneshouldregulateone’sbreathandabstainfromdrinkingcoldwater.Other absten­tionsarejustthesameastakingregularmedicine,butifoneissuretobesufferingfromcold,onemaytakeporridgewithoutharm.

Inthecaseofsufferingfromfever,itisgoodtodrinkwell-boileddecoctionsoftherootofbitterginseng(Sophoraflavescens).Teaisalsogood.FormorethantwentyyearsafterIleftmy nativecoun­try,Ionlydrankthisasamedicinalbeveragetopreservemyhealth,andIscarcelysufferedfromanydisease.

ThemedicinesinChina,includingthestoneneedleforacu­

puncture,amounttomorethanfourhundredkindsofherbscon­sistingofrootsandstalksofdifferentplants,mostofwhicharefineandrareincolorand haveafragrantflavor.Theyareeffectiveforcuringdiseasesandcaninvigorateone’sspirit.Acupunctureandtheskilloffeelingthepulse[inChina]areneversurpassedbyanycountryinJambudvipa,andthedrugsforlonglifearefoundonlyinChina.BecauseourhillsareconnectedwiththeHimalayasandourmountainsarelinkedwiththeGandha-mâdanas,manystrangeandpreciousthingsareproducedhereinabundance.Onaccountofthenaturaldispositionofherpeopleandthequalityofherproducts,ChinaisknownastheDivineLand.InallthefivepartsofIndia,whodoesnotesteemChina,andwhowithinthefourseasdoesnotholdherinrespect?ItissaidthatManjusriisnow livinginthatcountry.Whereveramonkgoes,ifthepeoplehearthatheisamonkfromtheDevaputra,theywillworshiphimwithgreathonor.Devameansheaven,

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andputra“ason,”denotingthatheiscomingfromtheplaceoftheSonofHeaveninChina.

Themedicinalherbsandtheacupuncture[usedinChina]arereallywonderful,butrecuperative measuresandthediscoveryofthecausesof diseasearevery muchneglected.SoIamheregivingaroughdescriptionof howtomeettheneedintime.I ffastingfailstoalleviateone’sailment,onemaythenresorttomedicaltreat­mentaccordingtoa prescription.Adecoctionofbitterginsengisaspecificremedyforfeverishdiseases,whileghee,honey,andfruitjuiceareparticularlygoodforcuringcolds.Inthecountryof LatainWestIndia,peoplewhoareillabstainfromfoodforafortnight,ora fullmonth,andwilltakefoodonlyafterthey havebeencuredoftheirillness.InCentralIndiathelimitforfastingissevendays,andintheSouthSeasitisbuttwoorthreedays.Thisisbecauseofdifferentlocalconditionsandvariantphysicalconstitutions.Sothenumberofdaysforfastingismoreinoneplaceandlessatanother,withoutauniformlimit.

Idonotknowwhetherornotfastingissuitabletobepracticedin China. Most people dieafterabstaining fromfood forsevendays,butthis is because one is not afflicted withanyillness. But i f one isinfectedwithillness,one will notdie even[after fasting] formanydays.OnceI saw asickmanwho fasted forthirtydaysandrecov­eredafterwards.Soitisnotsurprisingtoseeonefastingformany

225adays.Howcanoneforceamantodrinkhotporridgeinspiteofhissickness,simplyonseeingthatheisattackedbyaburningfever,withoutexaminingthecauseofhisillness?Suchanactisdeeplydreadful!Ifbyanychanceoneiscuredbysuchatreatment,itisafterallnottobetaughttothelaypeople.Itisstrictlyprohibitedtodosointheloreofmedicine.

Furthermore,thepeopleofpresent-dayChinamostly eat rawfishandvegetables,buttheIndiansnevereatanythinguncooked.Allsorts of vegetablesare well cookedand mixed withferula,ghee,andspices before beingeaten,andtheynevereat picklesormince­meatmadeof pickles.Irememberonce I atesomeof thesethings,andtheycausedmetosufferfromapainfullumpintheabdomen,

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whichhurtmybelly,cloggedmyintestines,inducedsoreeyes,andenfeebled meallthemore.ThatiswhytheIndiansdo noteatthem.Wisepeopleshouldconsiderthematterwellastowhatisusefulandpracticable,andwhatshouldbeabandonedorbekeptinmind.Ifonehasheardtheadviceof aphysician,butdoesnotactaccordingly, isthephysician to beblamed?Ifoneacts in accor­dancewithmedicaladvice,onewillliveateaseandbeabletofollowtheWayinaperfectmanner,benefitingbothoneselfandothers.I f oneabandonsgoodadvice,onewillhaveaweakbodyandbefeeble-minded,whileallone’seffortstodogoodforoneself

andotherswillbelost.

29.AvoidanceofEvilDrugs

Atcertainplaceswherethevulgarcustomhaslongbeenpreva­lent,thepeopletakefecesandurineintimeof illness,andwhenadiseasecomeson,thedungofpigsorcatsisused.Suchthings,entitled“dragondecoctions,”arekeptinanurnora ja r .Inspiteoftheirnicename,theyaretheworstof allfilthythings.Evenaftereatingonionorgarlic,whicharepermissibleforamonktoeat,onehastostayinasideroomtopurifyoneselfbywashingandbathingforsevendaysbeforejoiningothers.Whenone’sbodyisnotyetpurified,oneshouldnotentertheassemblyofmonks,norisitfittingforonetowalkroundastupa.Onemustnotworship[animageof theBuddha].Owingtotheiroffensivesmell,amonkisnotallowedtoeatthesethings,unlessheisill.

Whatiscalled“putrid-discharged[-medicine],”whichisoneof

thefourdependences,isthemedicinewhichisputridanddis­charged[byacow].Itismeanttosavetroubleandgetwhatismerelyforthepreservationofthebody.Costlymedicineis,ofcourse,allowable,andthereisnoharmintakingit.IntheSan­skrittermputi-mukti-bhaisajya,putimeans“putrid,muktiis“discharged,”andbhaisajyaistranslatedas“medicine.”(Yijingsrunningnote:Thuswehave“putrid-discharged-medicine.”)

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TheVinayapermitsfecesandurinetobeusedasmedicine,butthedungof acalfandtheurineof acowaremeant.InIndia,thebodyof onewhois condemnedtocapitalpunishmentissmearedwith[human]fecesanddiscardedinthewildernessoutsidehu­manhabitation.Night-soilremoversandscavengersstrikestickstodistinguishthemselveswhilegoingabout.Ifanybodytouches

themaccidentally,hehastowashhimself andhisgarmentsthor­oughlyclean.

ItwastheprincipleoftheGreatTeachertoactaccordingtocirc*mstancesandtakeprecautionsagainstpeople’sderisionandslander.How couldhehaveasked othersto takesuchthingsagainstthecustomsof histime?ThereasonsforhisdisallowancearefullyexplainedintheVinaya.Itisreallydespicableforoneto givesuchthingstoothersfortheiruse.Weshouldnotallowvulgarcustomstobecomearegularpractice.I f foreignersheardaboutit,itwouldbedetrimentaltothegoodnameof ourmoralsandmanners.More­over,wehave plentyoffragrantmedicinalherbs,andwhyshouldwenotusethem?Whyshouldonegiveotherswhatonedoesnot

225btakeforoneself?Tocounteractthepoisonofsnakebite,wehavesuchmineralsassulfur,realgar,andorpiment,anditisnotdifficulttogetpiecesofthemandtakethemwithus.I foneissufferingfrommiasmafever,therearesuchfebrifugesasthedecoctionpre­paredwithlicorice,[thewildteaof]MountHeng,andbittergin­seng,whichmaybekeptinlargeorsmallquantities andareeasilyobtainable.Coldscanbecompletelycuredbytakingsomeginger,pepper,orPiperlonguminthemorning.Rockcandyandgranu­latedsugar,wheneatenatnight,maysatiatehungerandthirst.

Ifnothingislaidasidetomeetthecostofmedicine,onewillcer­tainlybeshortofmoneyintimeof need.I f oneactscontraryto theteaching[of theBuddha]anddoesnotputtheteachingintoprac­tice,howcanonebefreefromcommitting faults? Whenmoneyissquanderedaimlessly,onewillbeinatightcornerinanemer­gency.Whocanhaveadirectunderstandingofthis,i fIdonotexplainitindetail?Alas!Peopledonotutilizegoodmedicinebut,inordertosavetrouble,theyusethe“dragondecoction”!Although

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they havesomesmallbenefitinmind,theyarenotawarethatitisagreatoffenseagainsttheholyteaching.FollowersoftheSammitiyaSchoolspeakoftheputrid-discharged-medicine,butasitisadifferentschoolfromours,weshouldnotfollowitsex­

ample.AlthoughitismentionedintheVinaya-dvavimsati-

prasannartha-sastra,thisisnota workstudiedbytheadherentsoftheSarvastivadaSchool.

30.OnTurningtotheRightandtheObservationofTime

TurningtotherightispradaksinainSanskrit.Theprefixprohasvariousmeanings,buthereinthisworditdenotesgoinground.

Daksinameans“therightside,”generallysignifyingwhatisre­spectableanddexterous.Thusmycontemporaries[inIndia]calltherighthandthedaksinahand,meaningthatitisontherightsideandisrespectableanddexterous.Itis,therefore,inconfor­mitywiththeritesofwalking round[arespectablepersonorob­ject].Daksinaalsomeansadonationtothemonks,andinthiscaseitisdifferentinmeaningfromwhatismentionedhere,asIhaveexplainedbefore.InallthefivepartsofIndia,theeastiscalledthefront,andthesouthisatone’srightside,butthis isnotthepointbywhichtodecidewhatisrightandleft[whengoingroundarespectablepersonorobject].

Inthescripturesitshouldbesaidthatonewalkedround[the

Buddha]threetimestowards therightside,butit iswrongto saythatonewalkedbesidetheBuddha.Insomescripturesitissaidthatonewalkedroundthreetimestowardstherightside,andthis is inconformitywiththerites.It is anabridgmentto saythatonewalkedroundahundredorathousandtimeswithoutsaying

“towardstheright.”

Itissomewhatdifficulttodecidewhichiswalkingroundto­wardstherightandwhichistowardsthe left.Shall wedeemwalk­ingtowardsone’srighthandtobetowardstheright,andwalking

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towardsone’slefthandtobetowardstheleft?OnceaChinesescholarelucidated thepoint,sayingthatwhenone’s righthandistowardstheinteriorofthecircleingoingroundanobject,itiscalledrightsidecircumambulation,and whenthelefthandisto­wardstheinteriorofthecircle,itiscalledleftsidecircumambula-tion.Hearguedthatonecancompleterightsidecircumambulationonly bywalkingroundanobjecttowards itsleftside.Thisis merelyhisconjecture.Itisirrelevanttothecorrecttheory,anditmis­guidedignorantpeople.Evensomemen ofgreatvirtueand erudi­tionaresopuzzledastoechothatscholar’sopinion.

Whatshallwedotomakeacompromiseaccordingtoreason?WeshoulddependupononlytheSanskrittextsandstopupourpersonalfeelings.Towalkroundtowardstherightside[of aper­sonoranobjectof veneration]isrightsidecircumambulation,whiletowalktowards theleftsideis leftsidecircumambulation.ThisistherulelaiddownbytheHolyOne,andthereisnodoubtaboutit.

Asregardswhatare[proper]andwhatareimpropertimes,therearevariousimplicationsaccordingtodifferentcirc*mstances’asisexplainedintheScriptureonProperTimesandImproperTimes.ButintheVinayatextsofthefourschools,itisunani­mouslyaffirmedthatnoontimeisthepropertime[fortakingameal].If the shadowof theneedleonasundialhaspassedevenashttleasathread,itisconsideredanimpropertime.I fapersonwishestodeterminethecardinalpointsinordertoguardhimselfa*gainstcommitting the fault[ofeatingatanimpropertime],heshouldmeasurethenorthstarandobservethesouthernconstel­

lationatnight,so asto fixthecorrectline[betweenthesouthandthenorthpoles],andtofindoutwhennoontimeisapproaching.Again,hemayalsobuildasmallearthenmound,onefootindi­ameterandfiveinchesinheight,atakeyposition.Atthecenterofthemoundaslenderstickisinserted.Oranailissometimesfixedonapieceofstone.Itisasslimasabamboochopstick,fourfinger-widths inlength.Alineis to bedrawnovertheshadowof thenailatthe momentof highnoon.If theshadow has passed the lineitbecomesimproperforonetoeatfood.InIndiasuchasundial,known

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as avelacakra,translatedas aroundinstrumentformarkingtime,issetupinmostplaces.Thepurposeofmeasuringtheshadowistofindoutwhenitisatit*shortest,whichmarksthemomentof

themeridian.

ButinJambudvipathemiddaylinevariesinmeasurementatdifferentlocations.Forinstance,intheregionofLuothereisnoshadowatall,andthisisdifferentfromotherregions.Again,inthecountryof Srlbhoja,theshadowonthesundialisneitherlongnorshortinthemiddleoftheeighthmoon.Atmiddayaman,oranyobjectunder thesun,castsnoshadowontheground.Suchisalsothecaseinthemiddleofspring.Thesunpassesoverheadtwiceayear.Whenthesunistravelinginthesouth,theshadow[ofaman]fallsnorthwardsandistwoorthreefeetmlength.Whenitisinthenorth,theshadowisthesametowardsthesouth.InChina,theshadowtowardsthesouthandthattowardsthenortharedifferent[inlength],anddoorswiththenorthatthebackal­ways facethesun.Whenit ismiddayontheeasterncoastof China,itis notyetnoontimeinthewestern partof thecountry.Since itisdifficultto holdoneprinciple forallmatters,itissaid intheVinaya.“Whentimeistobedetermined,oneshoulddosoaccordingtothe

[local]zenith,andthenthetimeisfixed.”

Allhomelessmonksshouldbehaveaccordingtotheholyteach­ing.Astakingfoodisabsolutelynecessaryeveryday,oneshouldbemindfulaboutmeasuringtheshadowbeforeeating.I f onene­glectedthis rule,howcouldoneobservethe otherprecepts?There­fore,thoseeminentmonkswhoareengagedinpropagatingtheDharmaandmakingitprosperous nevercomplainoftheminuteandcomplicated[disciplinaryrules].Evenwhentheyaretravel­ingonthesea,theycarrythesundialwiththem;willtheygowithoutitwhentheyareonland?InIndia,traditionsaysthatonewhoinspectsthewater[toensurethatitisfreefrominsects]andaffirmsthatitishighnoonisamasterofVinaya.

Furthermore,clepsydrasarekeptinallthelargemonasteries

inIndia.Theyaregiftsdonatedbysuccessivegenerationsof kings,togetherwithwatchers,tokeepthemonksinformedofthehours.

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Thelowerpartof thedeviceisacoppervesselfilledwithwateronwhichacopperbowlisfloating.Thebowlisthinanddelicatelymade,capableofholdingtwoshengs(oneshengequalsoneliter)ofwater,withaholeastinyasa pinholeatthebottom,fromwhichwaterleaksin.Itisanaccuratedeviceforthemeasurementoftime.Whenthebowlisfullofwater,itsinks,andadrumissounded.

Commencingatdawn,onestrokeofthedrumissoundedatthefirstsinkingofthebowl,twostrokesatthesecondsinking,and

226athreestrokesatthethirdsinking.Afterthefourstrokesofthedrumatthefourthsinking,aconchisblowntwice,endingwithonemorestrokeof thedrum,indicatingthefirsthour,whenthesunisrisingintheeast.Afterthesecondroundof thebowlsink­ingfourtimesandthedrumbeingbeatenfourtimeswiththeconchbeingblownoncemore,thedrumissoundedtwicetoindi­catethesecondhour;thismarkstheexactmomentof highnoon.Whenthedrum hasbeenstrucktwice,themonksshouldstopeat­ing.I fanyoneis foundeating,heisexpelled[fromthecommunityof monks]accordingtomonasticregulations.Intheafternoon,therearealsotwohours,announcedinthesamewayas intheforenoon.Thefourhoursofthenightaresimilartothoseinthedaytime.Asawhole,onedayandonenightconsistofeighthours.

Attheendofthefirstwatch,thedirectorofdutiesstrikesadruminaloftofthemonasterytoannouncethetimeforthemonksSuchisthewayofusingtheclepsydrainNalandaMonastery.Atduskanddawn,adrumisbeatenfor onestretchatthe gate.Thesemiscellaneousaffairsareperformedbyservantsorporters.Fromsunsettodawn,theordinarymonksarenotobligedtosoundthe

ghanta(bell),norisitthedutyofservants; thedirectorof dutieshasto do ithimself.Thereisadifferencebetweenbeatingfourorfivestrokes[ontheghanta],anditisfullyexplainedelsewhere.

TheclepsydrasaresomewhatdifferentinthemonasteriesinMahabodhiandKusinagara,where thebowlssinksixteentimesbetweendawnand midday.InthecountryofKu-lunin the SouthSeas,acoppercauldronfilledwithwaterisused,andthewaterleaksdownthroughatinyholeatthebottom.Whenthewateris

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drainedaway,thedrumwillbesounded.Eachtimethecauldronis emptied,thedrumisbeatenonce,andwhenthedrumhasbeenbeatenfourtimes,itismidday.Thisprocessisrepeatedtillsun­set.Atnighttherearealsoeighthoursasinthedaytime,andtherearesixteenhoursaltogether[inadayandanight].Theseclepsydrasarealsogiftspresentedbythekingofthatcountry.

Itisduetotheuseoftheclepsydrathatoneisneverperplexedaboutnoontimeevenonadarkdaywiththickcloudsoverhead,andthatduringanightof continuousrainthereisnodoubtaboutthewatches.Weshouldalsopresentamemorialtothe[Chinese]emperor,askingfortheinstallation[ofclepsydrasinourmonas­teries],asitisanimportantpieceofequipmentformonks.

Inmakinga clepsydraoneshould firstdivideadayandanightinsuchawayastoletthebowlsinkeighttimesfromdawntonoontime.I fitistosinkfewerthaneighttimes,theholeinthebowlshouldbedrilledbigger.Askillfulmechanicisrequiredtoregulatethedevicecorrectly.Whenthedayornightgraduallybecomesshorter,h a lfaspoonfulofwaterisaddedtothedevice.Whentheybecomegraduallylonger,halfa flagonofwateristakenout.Butthisisdonewithinthelimitofincrementsordecrementsof time.Itisreasonableforthedirectorofdutiestokeepasmallbowl[tomarkthetime]inhischamberwithoutincurringanyfault.

InChina therearefivewatches[inthenight],andinIndiathereare fourparts, butaccordingtotheteachingof theBuddha,theTamerof Men,therearethreehoursinthenight,i.e.,anightisdividedintothreeparts.Duringthefirstandthird parts,oneshouldrecite[theholytexts],andonlyduringthesecondpartmayonesleepwithaconcentratedmind.Onewhodeviatesfromthisruleincursthe faultofviolating theBuddhasteaching,un­lessheis ill.Ifoneputsthisinto practicewithamindofvenera­tion,onewillultimatelybenefitoneselfandothers.

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31.BathingtheBuddha’sImage

Ithasbeenexplainedindetailthatnoneismorevenerablethanthethreehonoredones,andthatnothingcansurpassthefournobletruthsassubjectsformeditation.Buttheintrinsicprincipleof thetruthsisso profoundthatitisbeyondtheunderstandingofanuncultivatedmind,whilethe lavationoftheholyimage[of theBuddha]canbeperformedwithbenefitbyallpeople.AlthoughtheGreatTeacherhasentered nirvana,hisimagestillexists,andweshouldvenerateitas if he were intheworld.Incenseand flowersshouldoftenbeofferedtotheimage;bydoingso ourmindmaybepurified.Tobatheitregularlyisgoodenoughtoclearawaytheevilinfluenceofourdeedscausedbyidleness.Withthispointinmind,onewillreceiveinvisiblebenefits,andi foneadvisesotherstodoso,onewillgainvisibleadvantagesbothforoneselfandforothers.Ihopethatthosewhowishtoobtainblisswillbearthispracticeinmind.

InthemonasteriesofIndia,atthetimeforbathingtheBuddha’simage,usuallyintheforenoon,thedirectorofdutiesstrikesaghanta.(Yijin g’srunningnote:Thedirectorofduties,orthegiverofduties,iskarmadanainSanskrit.Danameans“giv­in g,”andkarma,“action,”i.e.,onewhogivesvariousdutiestothemonks.Thistermwasformerlyrenderedaswei-na,whichisin­correct.InChinese,thecharacterweimeans“acord”or“totietogether,”whilenastandsforthelastsyllableoftheSanskritkarmadana,andwasusedasanabbreviationoftheword.) Apre­ciouscanopy isstretched inthecourtofthemonastery,andbottlescontainingperfumedwaterareputinarowbythesideofthe

226b

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shrinehall.AnimageoftheBuddha,madeofeithergold,silver,bronze,orstone,isplaced ina basinof copper,gold, wood,orstone,whiledancinggirlsareaskedtoplaymusic.Theimageisrubbedwithscentedpaste,andthenperfumedwaterispouredoverit.(Yijin g’srunningnote:Takeanyscentedwood,suchassandal­woodoraloeswood,andgrinditwithwaterintopasteonaflatstonewhich[lookslike]aplinth.Theimageisrubbedwiththispastebeforeperfumedwaterispouredoverit.)Itisthenwipedcleanwitha pieceofpurewhiteclothandset upintheshrinehall,whichisdecoratedwithflowersandcoloredribbons.Thisistheceremony performedbythemonksof amonasteryundertheguid­anceofthedirectorofduties.Intheirseparateroomsthemonksalsoperformthisceremonyinanindividualway,andtheydosoeverydaywithoutnegligence,regardingitasimportant.

Allkindsof flowers,eitherfromherbsortrees,m aybe usedasofferings.Whetherinthewinterorinthesummer,thereareal­waysfragrantflowers,andtherearealsomanyflowersellersinthe markets.InChina,forinstance,lotusesandpinksdisplayvari­ouscolorsinsummerandautumn,whilegoldenvitex,peach,andapricottreesbloomprofuselyinthespringtime.Thealthaeabushes

226candpomegranatetreesblossomoneaftertheotheratdifferenttimes,andtheredcherryandwhitecrabappletreesputforthnewbudsfromseasontoseason.Suchflowersasthosefromholly­hocksingardensorfromvanillatreesinthevillagesmustbebroughtinand properlyarranged[beforetheimage];theyshouldnotbeleftingardensforonetoviewfromafar.Inthewinterwhenflowersmayrunshortforsometime,wemaycutcoloredsilk[intoartificialflowers]andmixthemwithpowderedperfume.ItisreallygoodtoplacethembeforetheimageoftheBuddha.

Thebronzeimages,regardlessofsize,mustbepolishedbrightlywithfinebrickdust,andthenpurewaterispouredoverthem,untiltheybecomeasclearandbrilliantasa mirror.Alargeimagemustbewashedasa join teffortbyallofthemonksinthemiddleandattheendof eachmonth,whileasmallonemaybewashedeverydaybyanindividualmonkaccordingtohisability.Although

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thecostofthisperformanceissmall,theblissandbenefitgainedtherefromaregreat.

Thewaterinwhichanimage hasbeenbathedisknownasthewaterof auspiciousness.Onemaywishforsuccessbysprinklingitwithtwo fingersoverone’shead.Oneshouldnotsmelltheflowersthathavebeenofferedtoanimage,norshouldonetrampleonthemwhentheyaretakenoff [thealtar],buttheyshouldbeputawayinacleanplace.Howcanamonkbeallowed nottobathetheholyimageduringhislifetimetillhishairhasturned white?Al­thoughredflowersmaybespreadalloverthefields,hehasnomindtopickthemas offeringstoanimage.Thushebecomeslazyinperforming[religiousfunctions],andwhenpeoplepointout[lo­tus]pondsandgardens,heremainsindolentandshirksthebore[ofpickingflowers].HeissoidleastobereluctanttoopentheBuddhahall,andiscontentedwithcollectiveworship.Inthismannerthelineof successionfromteacherto pupilwillbebroken,andtherewillbenowheretopayhomage[totheBuddha].

ItisthedutyofmonksandlaymeninIndiatobuildcaityas

withclayandmoldimagesoutof clay,ortoprint[images]onsilkorpapertobeworshipedwhereveronegoes,ortopileupheapsofclayandsurround themwithbrickstoformstupasinthewilder­ness,tobelefttheretofallapartanddisappearnaturally.(ThereisaChinesenote.)

Whentheymakeanimageorbuildacaityaoutofgold,silver,

copper,iron,clay,lacquer,bricks,orstone,orevenbypilingupsand orsnow,theyputtwo kindsof relics insidethem.One is theGreatTeacher’srelic bones,andtheother istheverseondepen­dentorigination,whichreads:

Allthingsarisefromconditions;

TheTathagatahasexpoundedthecauses.

Allthingsendwiththeendoftheconditions.ThuswasspokenbytheGreatSramana.

Ifthesetwokindsofrelicsareplacedinsidetheimageorcaitya,

onewillgainplentyofbliss.Therefore,manyparablesarewidely

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usedinthescripturestopraisetheunthinkableadvantagesofdoingso.Ifamanmakesanimageevenassmallasagrainofbarley,orbuildsacaityaastinyasajujubewithawheelsignandaspireas littleasapinonit,he willobtainspecialgoodcausesaslimitlessasthesevenseas,andhisgoodrewardswilllastaslongasfourrebirths.Afullaccountofthism a tterisgivenindetailinseparatescriptures.

Ihopevariousteacherswillperformthisfunctionfromtimeto time.Tobatheandvenerateaholy imageis anactionthatmakesonemeetaBuddhainalllives,andtheofferingofflowersandincenseisacauseforonetoenjoywealthandhappinessinallfuturerebirths.Whetheronedoestheworkoneselforadvisesoth­erstodoit,onewillgetunlimitedbliss.

Ihaveseeninsomeplacesthatthe monksorlaymenbrought27aoutanimagetotheroadside,pouredwateroveritandwasheditproperly,buttheydidnotknowhowtodryitwithawiper.

Theysimplyexposedtheimagetothesuntobedriedbythewind.Thisisincongruouswiththerites.

32.TheCeremonyofChanting

ItisatraditionhandeddownfromancienttimesintheDivineLandthatthemonks worshiptheBuddhabyrepeatinghisname;mostofthemdonotextolhimandpraisehisvirtues.Onemayonlylistentothe repetitionof hisnameandnotknowtheheightof hiswisdom, butwhenhisvirtuesarepraised andfullyenu­merated,onewillrealizethegreatnessanddepthofhisvirtues.

InIndiathemonkspracticecaitya-vandana(walkingroundacaitya)andpayregularhomagelateintheafternoonorintheevening.Themonksgatherinanassembly,gooutofthegate[ofthemonastery],andwalkthreetimesroundastupatowhichincenseandflowersareoffered.Thentheycrouchontheground,andacompetentmonkisaskedtopraisethevirtuesoftheBuddhaintenortwentystanzas,withalamentingandelegantvoiceandinaclearandsolemnmanner.

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Afterthattheyreturninregularsequencetotheusualmeet­ingplaceinthemonastery.Havingtakentheirseats,theyinviteascripture-recitertomountthelionseattoreadashortscrip­ture.Thelionseat,whichiswellproportioned,beingneithertoohighnortoobig,isplacedattheheadofthelineofseats,withthechiefmonk’sseatnexttoit.TherecitationmostlyconsistsofthreestatementsselectedandarrangedbytheVenerableAsvaghosa.Thefirststatement,containingabouttenstanzas,isahymnpraisingthethreehonoredonesaccordingtothecon­tentsofthescriptures.Thesecondstatementisthefulltextofthescripturerecited,whichconsistsofthewordsoftheBuddha.Aftertheconclusionofthehymnandthereadingofthescrip­ture,aresolutionismadeinmorethantenstanzasforthetrans­ferenceofmerits.Asthe recitationisdividedintothreesections,itisknownasthethreestatements.

Whentherecitationisover,allthemonksintheassembly

exclaim“Subhasita!”Sumeans“well,”andbhasita,spoken,thatis,“Well-spoken!”Theirintentionistopraisethescripture

asatextofwonderfulsayings.OrtheyexclaimSadhu,mean­

ing“Excellent!”

Whenthescripture-reciterhasdescended,thechiefmonkrisesfirsttosalutethelionseat,andthensalutestheseatsof theholymonks.Afterdoingso,heresumeshisownseat.Themonksecondinordersalutesthetwoplacesasthechiefmonkdidandalsoworshipsthechiefmonk;thenhereturnstohisownseat.Themonk whoisthirdinorderperformstheritesinthesamemanner.Thisisdonebyalltheothermonkstillthelastonehasmadehishomage.I ftheassemblyistoolarge,afterthreeorfivepersonshaveperformedtheceremonymentionedabove,alltherestmaysalutetheassemblycollectivelyatoneandthesametime,andthen theyretireatwill.This isthenormalpracticeforperformingtheceremonyofthemonksofTamraliptiineasternIndia.

InNalandaMonastery wherethereare somanyresident monksthat theyexceedthreethousandinnumber,itisdifficulttoas­sembleallthemonksinahurry.Thereareeightcourtyardswith

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threehundredrooms,butthemonksmayperformtheritesof pay-mghomageandrecitationatanytimeintheirseparateplaces.Itisthecustomof thismonasterytoappointa preachercapableof chant-mgtogoroundfromplacetoplaceeveryeveningtoconducttheceremonyofworshipingandpraising[thevirtuesoftheBuddha],withaservantandaboyholdingincenseandflowersleadingtheway.Hegoesthrougheverycourtyardandpayshomageinalltheshrinehalls.Eachtimehepayshomage,hechantsthepraisesofthe

27bBuddhainthreeorfivestanzasinahighvoicethatisheardallaround.Hecompletestheroundinthetwilight.Thispreacheral­waysreceivesspecialofferingsprovidedbythemonastery.

Onemaysitalone,facingtheshrine,andpraisetheBuddhamhismind,orgotoatempleand kneelonthegroundtogetherwithotherstochantinahighpitch.Onemaythenputone’shandsonthegroundandtouchitwithone’sheadthreetimes.This is thetraditionalceremonyofpayinghomagepracticedinIndia.Theagedandsickmonksmaybeallowedtousesmallseats[whileperformingtheceremony].We[inChina]havehadthestanzasinpraiseof theBuddhasinceancienttimes,butourwayofchantingthemissomewhatdifferentfromthatoftheBrahmaniclandofIndia.Forinstance,whenthestanzainpraiseoftheBuddha’sexcellentphysicalmarksischantedwhileworshipingtheBuddha,itisintonedinaneventonewithalongtrailingvoice,intenortwentyverses.Thisistheproperwayofchantingit.Moreover,thehymnmpraiseof theTathagata,e t c,isreallysungtoextoltheBuddha,butastheintonationissomewhatprolonged,themeaningbecomesdifficultforonetounderstand.Whentheas­

semblyofmonksisfeelingsadonaquietnightonthedayofper­formingceremoniesinmemoryofthedead,itisreallygoodtoaskacompetentmonktorecitetheHymnofOneHundredandFifty

VersesandtheHymnofFourHundredVerses,aswellasotherpanegyrics.

In India,numerouspanegyricshavebeenhandeddownto besungwhenpaying homage,andtherewasnomanofliterarytal­entwhodidnotcomposeanencomiuminpraiseofapersonwhom

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hedeemedworthytobeeulogized.TheVenerableMatrcetawassuchamanofgreat talentandhigh virtue,whoexcelledaboveallscholarsof goodlearningof histime.TraditionsaysthatwhentheBuddhawasliving,heonceledagroupofdisciples,wanderingamong thepeople.Anoriole,onseeingthe featuresoftheBuddhaasmagnificentasagoldenmountain,begantotrillmelodiouslymthewoodasifitwereeulogizinghim.TheBuddhalookedbacandsaid to hisdisciples,“This birdissodelightedwithm yappear­ancethatitcan’thelpwarblinginaquavering manner.Owingtothisgooddeed,itshallbereborn,aftermydeparturefromtheworld,intheformofamanwiththenameofMatrceta,whowillextensivelyexaltmeformygreatvirtues.”(Yijing’srunningnote:

Matrimeans“mother,”andceta,child.)

Atfirstthismanbecameanasceticof ahereticalreligionandworshipedMahesvara.Sincethisdeitywastheobjectof hisven­eration,hecomposedhymnsinpraiseofhim.Afterwards,whenhesawthathisnamehadbeenmentionedina prediction,heturnedhismindtobelieveintheBuddhaanddyedhisgarmenttoliveasamonkawayfromsecularlife.HewidelyglorifiedtheBuddha,repentingwhatwrongshehaddoneinthepastanddesiringtofollowthesuperiorWayinthefuture.HeregrettedthathehadnotmettheGreatTeacherinpersonbuthadonlyseenhisimage.Thushewrote,inaccordancewiththeprediction,encomiumsmanornatestyletoextolthevirtuesoftheBuddha.Hecomposed

firsttheHymnofFourHundredVersesandthentheHymnofOne

HundredandFiftyVerses,bothfortheelucidationofthesixparamitas(thesixperfectvirtues)andfortheexpositionofthesuperiorvirtuesoftheBuddha,theWorld-honoredOne.Thesecompositionsaregracefulandbrilliantinphraseology,equalmbeautytoheavenlyblossoms,andtheprinciplescontainedmthemaresoloftyastorivalearthlymountainsinheight.Alleulogists

inIndiaimitatedhisstyleandregardedhimasthefatherofeulo­

gisticl*terature,andbothAsahgaandVasubandhugreatlyad-227c

miredhim.Inallthefivepartsof Indiathosewhobecomemonksarefirsttaughtthesetwocompositionsassoonastheycanrecite

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thefiveandtenprecepts,thisbeingtheruleforallmonksregard­

lessofwhethertheybelongtotheMahayanaortheHinayanaschools.

Therearesixsignificancesinthe hymns.First,theyenableustoknowtheprofoundand far-reachingvirtuesofthe Buddha;sec­ond,theyteachushowtowritecompositions;third,theyensurethepurityof ourtongue; fourth,thechestisexpanded[whilesing­ingthem];fifth,oneis notnervousinacongregation[whilerecit­ingthehymns];andsixth,theyenableustolivelongwithoutillness.Afterhavingstudiedthesehymns,oneproceedstolearnotherscripturaltexts.ButthesefineliteraryworksarenotyetintroducedtoChinaintheeast.Thereare,however,manyexposi­torsoftheseworks;butnoneof themmayreallybecountedasasufficientlygoodpoettowriteafterthesamerhymes.

DihnagaBodhisattvapersonally wrotesomehymnsof thesamecaliberinthesamestyle.Atthe beginningof eachverse,headdedoneofhisown,makingatotalnumberofthreehundredverses,knownastheCompositePanegyric.Awell-knownmonk,namedSakyadevaofDeerPark,againaddedoneversebeforeeachofDinnaga’sstanzas,producingaworkoffourhundredandfifty

versesinall,knownastheMixedCompositePanegyric.Allcom­posersofeulogiestakethisworktobeacriterion.

OnceNagarjunaBodhisattvawrotealetterinverse,entitledtheSuhrllekha,meaning“alettertoabosomfriend,”tohisoldsupporterJetakawhohadthetitleofSatavahana,thekingofa*greatcountryinthesouth.Thestyleofthe letterishighlyorna­mentalwithearnestgreetingsandexhortations,aimingattheMiddleWayasthetargetofachievem entandshowingmoreaffectionthanthatshowntoakinsman.Thepurportoftheletter

isreallymanifold.Firstitadvocatesrespectforand faithinthethreehonoredonesandsupportingone’sparentswith filial piety.Oneshouldobservethe precepts,relinquishwhatis evil,andbeprudentinchoosing friends.The contemplationofimpurityshouldbepracticedinmattersofwealthandwomen.Oneshouldlookafterone’shouseholdandkeepinrightfulremembrancethat

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everythingisimpermanent.Oneshouldwidelynarratethecondi­tionsofhungryghostsandanimals,anddescribeindetailtheaffairsof men,gods,andthehells.Evenif afirewereburningonthehead,onewouldhaveno leisuretowipeitout,asone’smindisso deeplyabsorbedinthetruthofthechainofcausalityinordertogainspiritualliberation.Oneshoulddiligentlypracticethethreemodesofattainingwisdom,andclearlyunderstandtheeightfoldnoblepath.Itadvisesustolearnthefournobletruths,soastorealizethetwoperfectvirtues.OneshouldbelikeAvalokitesvaraandmakenodistinctionbetweenfriendandfoe;thenweshallbeabletolivetogetherwithAmitabhaBuddhainthePureLandforever.Thisisthewaytosavelivingbeings;nootherwayisbet­

terthanthisone.

InthefivepartsofIndia,allstudentsfirststudiedthisletterinversewhentheybegantoreceiveschooling.Noneofthosewhoturnedtheirmind[toBuddhism]didnotspendtheirwholelife­timeslearningthisepistle,justasthemonksinChinarecitethe

SutraonAvalokitesvaraandthelaityreadtheOneThousandCharacterCompositionortheBooko fFilialPiety.Itisuniver­sallystudiedwithkeeninterest.TheJatakamalaisaworkof thesamesort.(Yijing’srunningnote:Jdtakameans“previousincar­nation,”andmala,“acollection,”i.e.,acollectionofstoriesaboutthehardshipsthe Bodhisattvaexperiencedinhispreviousincar­nations.)IfitistranslatedintoChinese,itwouldamounttoover

tenrolls.Inordertoedify livingbeings,thebirthstoriesarewrit­teninpoetryforthepurposeofcateringtotheliterarytasteofthosereaderswhotakedelightinperusingfinewritings.

Atonetime,KingSlladitya,whowasexceedinglyfondoflit-228a

erature,issuedanordersaying,“If any oneof yougentlemenhasanyfinepanegyricpoetry,show it to us attheaudience tomorrowmorning.”Whenthemetricalcompositionswerecollected,theyamountedtofivehundredbundles.Whenthekingopenedthemandreadtheverses,hefoundthatmostofthemwereadaptedfromtheJdtakastories. From this fact he came to knowthatthesestorieswerethemostexcellentwritingsamongalleulogisticworks.

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OntheislandsoftheSouthSeas,therearemorethantencoun­trieswherebothmonksandlaymenchantandrecitetheabove-

mentionedeulogisticpoems,whicharenotyettranslatedintoChinese.

KingSlladityaalsocomposedsongstoglorifythedeedofJimutavahanaBodhisattva,whovolunteeredtosacrificehimselfinplaceofaserpent.Musicianswereemployedtoplaywindandstringedinstrumentstoaccompanythesingersanddancers,andthesongswerethusrenderedpopularinhistime.

CandragominMahasattvaofeasternIndiawroteasongaboutPrinceVisvantara,anditissungwithdancinginallofthefivepartsof India.ThisprincewasformerlyknownasPrinceSudana.TheVenerableAsvaghosaalsowroteversesaswellasthe

Sutralahkara-sastraandtheBuddhacarita-kavya,ofwhichthefullversion,iftranslated[intoChinese],wouldconsistof morethantenfascicles.Inthiswork,thecareeroftheBuddha,beginning

fromhislifeintheroyalpalaceuptohisdeathunderthetwinsalatrees,istoldinverse.Itiswidelyreadandsunginthefivepartsof Indiaandintheislandsofthe SouthSeas.Itisconciseinstyle,butthemeaningisclearandthesignificances,whicharemanifold,renderreadersdelighted.Theyneverfeelboredwhilereadingit.Asitconveystheholyteachings,itenablesustogainblessednessandbenefits.IamsendinghomeseparatecopiesoftheHymnofOneHundredandFiftyVersesandtheletter writtenbyNagarjunaBodhisattva,withthehopethatthosewhotakedelightinreadingeulogisticpoemswillstudyandrecitethem.

33.AbsurdWaysofWorshipingtheBuddha’sImage

Inourreligionthereareclearregulationsconcerningtheritesofpayinghomage.Amonkshouldalwaysexerthimself topracticemindfulnessduringallofthesixperiodsof thedayand night,lodginginasingleroomandlivingbyalms-beggingaccordingto

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thedhutaguna(asceticpractices)whilecultivatingtheWayofcontentment.Hewearsonlythethreerobes,withoutkeepinganysurplusgarments.Heshouldconcentratehisthoughtsonnonex­istenceandfreehimselfcompletelyfromtheencumbrancesof ex­istence.Canhenowdothingsinavariantwaydifferentfromthemonasticrules,thingssuchaswearingamonksrobe,andthusnotlookinglikeanordinaryman,but worshipinglikealaymaninthemarketplace?WhenweexaminetheVinayatexts,weshallseethatsuchathingistotallyforbidden.TheBuddhasaid,“Therearetwocategoriesofthingsthatoneshouldworship,namely,thetriplegemandseniorbhiksus.”TherearesomepeoplewhobringtheBuddha’simagetothehighway,where theholyobjectwillbedefiledbydustanddirt,inordertogetmoney[fromworshipers].Therearesomeotherswhobendtheirbodies,tattootheirfaces,break theirjoints,andpiercetheirskin,pretendingtodosowithagoodmind,butactuallytheyaretryingtoearntheirlivelihood.SuchspectaclesareneverseeninIndia.Iwouldadvisepeoplenot

todosuchthingsanymore.

34.TheWaysofLearninginIndia

TheuniquevoiceoftheGreatSageembracesallofthethreethou-228b

sand worldsas a whole.Itisutteredinaccordancewiththecapac­ityofthebeingsofthefivewaysof existence,byillustratingthesevencasesandninepersonalterminations[of theSanskritlan­guage],inordertoeffectextensivesalvation.(Yijingsrunning

note:ThesevencasesandninepersonalterminationsofSabda-vidya[thescienceofwords]willbebrieflyexplainedbelow.)There

isastoreofDharma,consistingofmentalwords;andIndra,theEmperorofHeaven,comprehendedtheinexpressiblescriptures.Or theexplanationis given in accordancewiththeusagesofgram­marinorderto enablethepeopleof Chinatounderstandthe wordsof theoriginallanguage,sothatthosewhohavecausetoreadthemmaydeveloptheirwisdomandbegratified,eachaccording

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tohisownmodestmentality,andtherebygetridof defilementsinconformitywithtruthandrealizethestateof perfectquietude.Asregardsthesupremetruth,itisfarbeyondthereachof wordsorspeech,buttheworldlyprinciplesofconcealmentarenotapartfromwording.(Yijing’srunningnote:Theterm“worldlyprinciples”wasformerlyknownasworldlytruth,whichwasnotfullyexpres­siveof itsmeaning.Themeaningisthatordinarymattersconcealtruth.Thematerialclay,forinstance,isoriginallynotapitcher,butpeopleerroneouslythinkof itasapitcher,andinthesoundofhumanvoicethereis nosong,yetpeoplemistakeit fortheessenceofasong.Moreover,whenperceptionarises,itssubstanceisnon-distinctive,anditisduetothecoveringofignorancethatvariousformstakeshapeillusorily.Notunderstandingone’sownmind,onethinksthatobjectsexistoutsidethemind.Boththesnakeandtherope[thatcausestheillusionof asnake]arefallaciousconcep­tions.Whenrightknowledgeishiddenaway,thetruthiscon­cealed,anditisthusknownasworldlyprinciplesof concealment.Theword“concealment”implies“worldly,”andsowehavethe

term“worldlyconcealment. ” Orwemaysimplysayveritabletruthandconcealedtruth.)

Butthetranslatorsof oldtimesrarelytalkedaboutthegram­marof theSanskritlanguage.Thosewhor*centlyintroducedscrip­turesintoChinaenunciatedonlythefirstsevencases.Itwasnotthattheydidnotknowtheeighthone(i.e.,thevocativecase),buttheysawnoneedtodiscussit.NowIhopeyouwillallstudySan­skrit,sothatwecansparethetranslatorsthetroubleofrepeti­tion.ThusIamju stwritingtheseparagraphs,merelytogiveabriefaccountofthefundamentalsofthelanguage.(Yijin g’srun-ningnote:EveninKu-lunandSuli,thepeoplecanreadSanskritscriptures.WhyshouldthepeopleoftheDivineLand,whichisalandofabundance,notprobeintotheoriginallanguageofthescriptures?InIndiaitissaidinpraise[of theChinesepeople]thatasManjusrIis nowlivingin Bing-zhou[inChina],thepeoplethereareblessedbyhispresence,andthus theyshouldbeadmiredandpraised.Thefullaccountistoolongtobecopiedhere.)

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TheSabda-vidya—sabdameans“words,”andvidya,“knowl­edge,”i.e.,theKnowledgeo fWords—is oneofthefivetreatises.InthefivepartsofIndia,secularbooksingeneralareknownasvyakarana(grammar),ofwhichtherearefiveprincipleworks,simi­lar[inpopularity]totheFiveClassicsof theDivineLandof China.(Yijing’srunningnote:Formerlyitwaswronglytranslatedasthe

Pi-qie-luoTreatise.)

1.TheSiddhavastu(aspellingbook),alsoknownastheSiddhirastu,isaninitiatorybookforbeginnersinprimaryschooltoachievetheaimofgaininggoodluckinlearning.Itdealswiththeforty-ninelettersofthealphabet,whicharemultipliedandarrangedinthe eighteensectionsof atotalof morethantenthou­sandsyllables,comprisingoverthreehundredstanzas.Therearefourlinesineachstanza,andeachlineconsistsofeightsyllables,makingthirty-twosyllables inastanza.Thereareshortandlongstanzas,anditisimpossibleformetogiveafullaccountofthemhere.Childrenbegintolearnthisbookattheageof sixandcom­pletethecourseinsixmonths.Accordingtotraditionitwascom­posedbyMahesvara.

2.TheSiitraisthegroundworkofallgrammaticalwritings.

Thenamemaybetranslatedas“shortaphorisms”orexplana­tionsoftherules[ofgrammar].Consistingof athousandstanzas,itwascomposedbyPanini,agreatscholarof widelearning,intheolddays.HewassaidtohavebeeninspiredandaidedbyMahesvarainwritingthiswork,andwhenheappearedwiththreeeyes,thepeopleofhistimebelievedthatitwastrulyso.

Attheageofeight,childrencancompletethestudyofthisSutra

ineightmonths.

3.TheBookonDhatu(verbalroots).Itcontainsathousand228c

stanzasespeciallyfortheexplanationofgrammaticalroots,anditisasusefulastheabovework.

4.TheBookoftheThreeKhilas(supplementaryworks).Khila

means“wasteland”;themetaphorisofthewastelandreclaimed

by afarmer.It should benamedtheBook onThree Pieces o f DesertLand;namely,(1)theAstadhatu,inathousandstanzas,(2)the

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Munda,inathousandstanzas,and(3)theUnadi,alsoinathou­sandstanzas.

(1)TheAstadhâtudealswiththesevencasesandthetenlas(thetentensesandmoodsofafiniteverb),andalsoex­plainstheeighteenpersonalterminationsofverbsandnouns.

Thesevencasesarepossessedbyallnouns,andineachcasetherearethreenumbers,namely,singular,dual,andplural.

Sotherearealtogethertwenty-oneformsforeverynoun.Forinstance,onemanisindicatedbypurusas,twom enbypurusau,andthree[ormore]menbypurusas.These formsofanounarealsodistinguishedbybeingpronouncedinaheavy

oralightbreath.Besidestheseven cases,thereisthevocativecase,whichistheeighthone.Asthefirst casehasthreenum­bers,so do theothercases,whichare,Iamafraid,too compli­catedtobementionedhere.Thecasesofanounarecalled

subanta,havingtwenty-fourinflections.Thetenlasdenotethetengrammaticalterms[beginningwiththeletter“1”] bywhichthethreedifferenttensesofaverbareexpressed.Theeighteenpersonalterminationsindicatethefirst,thesecond,andthethirdpersonsinthethreenumbersofaverbtodifferentiatetheworthyandunworthyorthisandthat.These

eighteenterminationsarecollectivelycalledtinanta.

(2)TheMundatreatstheformationofcompoundwords.Forinstance,theSanskritwordfor“tree”isvrksa,withwhichmorethantwentycompoundsareformed.Itiscombinedwithotherwordstoproducethenameofanotherthing.

(3)TheUnadiisroughlythesameastheprecedingwork,exceptthatwhatisfullyexplainedintheoneisonlybrieflymentionedintheother.Onlybystudyinghardforthreeyears

canaten-year-oldchildgraspthemeaningsofthesebooksonthethreeKhilas.

5.TheVrtti-sütra.Thisisacommentaryoftheabove-men­tionedSutra,on whichquiteanumberofcommentarieshave beencomposedsinceancienttimes,butthisisthebestone,consisting

ofeighteenthousandstanzasfortheelucidationofthetextofthe

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Sütra,withadetailedexplanationof itsmanifoldmeanings,andgivingafullexpositionofthenormalityoftheuniverseandtherules of godsandmen.A fifteen-year-old childcanunderstandthebookafterfiveyears’study.

PeopleofChinagoingtoIndiatoacquireknowledgemustlearn

thisworkbeforestudyingotherbooks,otherwisetheywilllaborinvain.Allthesebooksshouldbememorized,butthisapplies,asarule,onlytomenofhighertalent,whilethoseofmediumorinferiorcapabilitymaypassatestmerelybyunderstandingthemeaning.Theyshouldstudyharddayandnightwithoutanylei­

suretosleeprestfully,justlikeConfucius,whostudiedtheBooko fChangeswithsucheffortthatthreetimesheworeawaytheleatherbindersthatstrungtogetherthebambooslipsonwhich

theBookwaswritten,orlikeTongYu[ascholarofancienttimes],whoadvisedhispupilstoutilizealltheirsparetimetoreadbooksahundredtimes[inordertounderstandthemthoroughly].Thehairsofabullarecountedbythethousands,butaunicornhasonlyonehorn.Onewhohasmasteredthisworkisequalinaca­demicranktotheholderofaMasterofClassicsinChina.

ThisVrtti-sUtrawascomposedbythescholarJayâditya,whowasamanofgreatcapabilityandliterarytalent.Hecouldunder­

standwhateverhehadheardonce,withouthavingtolearnita229a

secondtime.Herespected thethreehonoredonesand performedvariousmeritoriousdeeds.Hisdeathoccurrednearlythirtyyearsago.Afterhaving masteredthiscommentary,onemayproceedtolearnthecompositionoflettersandmemorialssubmittedtoem­perors,writepoems,devoteone’smindtothestudyofthehetuvidyci(logic),andpayattentiontotheAbhidharma-kosa-sastra.Bypor­ingovertheNyâya-dvâra-tarka-sâstra,onemayknowhowtodraw

inferencesintherightway,andbyreadingtheJatakamala,onesfinetalentmaybedeveloped.

Afterthatonereceivesinstructionsfromatutorfortwoor

threeyears,mostlyatNâlandâMonasteryinCentralIndia,orinthecountryofValabhiinWesternIndia.ThesetwoplacesaresimilartoJin-ma(theImperialAcademy),Shi-qu-ge(theImperial

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Library), Long-men(theMainGateoftheImperial ExaminationHall),andQue-li(thebirthplaceofConfucius)inChina,wherebrilliantscholarsofoutstandingtalentassembleincrowdstodis­cussquestionsofrightandwrong.Thosewhoarepraisedbywiseauthoritiesasexcellentscholarsbecomefamousfortheirabilityfarandnear.Theymaythenbelievethattheirswordof wisdomissharpenoughforthemtogoascompetentpersonstoserveatthecourtofaking,makingsuggestionsanddisplayingtheirknowl­edge,inhopesofbeingemployed.Whentheytakepartinade­bate,theyalwayswinthecaseandsitondoublematstoshowtheirunusualintelligence.Whentheycarryonargumentstore­fute[heretics],theyrendertheiropponents tongue-tiedinshame.Theirfameresoundsthroughthefivemountainsandtheirreputespreadswithinthefourquarters.Theyreceivefeudal estatesandarepromotedtohigherrank,withtheirnameswritteninwhitehighuponthe gatesoftheirhouses.Afterthattheymaycontinuetostudyothersubjectsoflearning.

6.Next,thereisacommentaryontheVrtti-sutra,entitledCurni,consistingoftwenty-fourthousandstanzas.Thiswork,com­posedbythescholarPatanjali,makesananalyticalexplanationof

theframeandstructureoftheabove-mentionedSutra[of Panini],andgivesafullelucidationofthelattercommentary(theVrtti-sutra).Inordertounderstand[Panini’s]Sutra,onehastospendthreeyears completing thestudyof thiswork,whichissimilarinmerittotheSpringandAutumnAnnalsortheBookofChanges.

7.ThereisalsotheBhartrhari-sastra,acommentaryontheforegoingCurni,composedbythegreatscholarBhartrhariintwenty-fivethousandstanzas,dealingextensivelywiththeessen­tialsofhumanaffairsandgrammaticalknowledge,andrelating

ingreatdetailthecausesoftheriseandfallofvariousfamilies.

Hewasprofoundlylearnedinthetheoriesofvijhapti-matra(con­sciousnessonly),andwaswellversedinsyllogisms.ThereputeofthisscholarresoundedinthefivepartsofIndia,andhisvirtue

wasknowntotheremotestfrontiers.Hehadthoroughfaithinthetriplegemandconcentratedhismindonthetruthofthetwofold

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voidness.Inhopesofgaining thesuperiorDharma,hebecameamonk;butashewasmuchattachedtoworldlypleasure,here­turnedtosecular life;thishedidseventimes.If itwerenotforadeepbeliefinthelawof causeandeffect,whocouldhavestuck totherobeashedidsopersistently?Hewrotethefollowingpoemin

self-reproach:

Becauseofimpurities,tosecularlifeIreturned,Freefromdesires,therobeagainIdonned.

WhydothesetwomentalitiesTeasemeasifIwereaninfant?

HewasacontemporaryoftheVenerableDharmapala.

Onceamonkinthemonasteryhadthemindtoreturntosecu­larlifebecausehewaspersistentlypressed by worldlydesires.Heasked his pupils to carry himout of themonasteryina sedan chair.Whenpeopleaskedhimhisreasonfordoingso,hesaidinreply,“Allplacesof blessednessareintendedfortheresidenceof thosewhoobservethemoralprecepts.Sincemymindisimpurenow,Iamdoingwrongto therightDharma.” Ashe could not finda foot­inginanymonastery,monasteriesbeingfortheuseofmonksfrom

thetenquarters,hebecamealaydevoteecladinwhitegarments229b

andthenenteredamonasterytodisseminatetherightDharma.Ithasbeenfortyyearssincehepassedaway.

8.ThereisalsotheVakya-sastra(orVakyapadiya),also

composedbyBhartrhari,insevenhundredstanzaswitha com ­mentaryinseventhousandstanzas,givingadescription ofargu­mentationbasedontheauthorityof thesacredteachingsandofinferencebycomparison[asusedinsyllogisms].

9.Next,thereistheVital(-vrtta)inthreethousandstanzas

withacommentaryinfourteenthousandstanzas,the mainbodyof theworkbeingcomposedbyBhartrhariandthecommentarybythecommentatorDharmapala.Thisworkmakesanexhaus­tiveinquiryintotheabstrusesecretsofheavenandearthandinvestigatesto theutmost theessence ofhumanprinciples. Only amanwhoselearninghasreachedthestageofstudyingthisbook

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maybesaidtohave masteredthescienceofgrammarandbecom­paredtoonewhoisversedintheNineClassicsandtheworksofallschoolsofthoughtinChina.Allthesebooksmustbestudiedby

bothmonksandlaymen;otherwisetheycannotwinfameaswell-informedscholars.

Inthecaseofmonks,theyshouldlearnalltheVinayatextsanddoresearchintothescripturesandcommentaries,soastobeabletodefeathereticsindebate,likewarriorswinningincombatonthebattlefield,andtosolvequeriesasiceismeltedinboilingwater.InthiswaytheybecomefamousinJambudvipaandre­ceivemorerespectthanmenandheavenlybeings,assistingtheBuddhainspreadinghisedificationandguidingalllivingbeings[toemancipation].Theremaybeonlyoneortwosuchoutstandingpersonsappearingineachgeneration,andtheymaybecompared

tothesunandmoonandregardedasnagaelephants(themostexcellentelephants).Intheremote past thereweresuchpeopleasNagarjuna,Deva,Asvaghosa,andthelike.InthemiddleagestherewereVasubandhu,Asanga,Samghabhadra,Bhavaviveka,andothers;whileinrecenttimeswehave Dinnaga,Dharmapala,Dharmaklrti,Sllabhadra,aswellasSimhacandra,Sthiramati,

Gunamati,Prajnagupta,Gunaprabha,Jinaprabha,andsoon.Noneofthesegreatteacherswaslackinginthe variousreligiousandsecular virtuesmentionedabove,andall ofthemwere men of littledesire,with self-contentment.Nobody couldbeamatchforthem.Men of such caliber canscarcely be foundamongheretics and othersecularpeople.(Yijin g’srunningnote:AfullaccountofthemisfoundintheBiographiesoftheTenVirtuousMonksofIndia.)

Dharmaklrtireglorifiedthestudyofthehetuvidya,whileGunaprabhapopularizedtheVinayatextsforasecondtime.

GunamatiengagedinthepracticeofmeditationaccordingtotheSchool ofDhyana (mentalconcentration),andPrajnaguptamadecompletedistinctions betweentruthand heresy.Theyverifiedthatvaluable jewelsmightshinecolorfullyunderthedeepbluewherethewhaleslived,andthatsuperbmedicinesmightworkwondersontheloftyFragrantMountain.Fromthiswemayknowthatthe

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Buddha-dharmaisall-inclusiveandnothingisexcluded,andthattheseteacherscouldwriteacompositionasswiftlyastheechoof asound.TheydidnotneedtotakethetroubletostudytheFourteenClassicsinfull,nordidtheyneedtorepeatabookintwovolumes

ahundredtimes,beingabletounderstandwhatevertheyhadheardonce.(Yijing’srunningnote: Ahereticcomposed[atreatisein]sixhundredstanzas,andcamewiththemtodebatewithDharmapala,who,havinglistenedtothestanzasonlyonce beforetheaudienceatanassembly,committedtheversestomemoryandgraspedtheirmeanings.)

InallthefivepartsofIndia,theBrahmansareregardedasthe

noblestcaste.Whereverthereis a meeting,they neverassociate withpeopleof theotherthreecastes,andkeepthoseof mixedcasteatadistance.Theirsacred textsare thefour Vedas,consistingof aboutahundredthousandstanzas.Thewordvedameans“clearunderstand­ing,”whichinformertimeswaswronglytransliteratedaswei-tuo.

The Vedasarehandeddown by wordof mouth,notby writingthemonpaperorleaves.FromtimetotimethereareintelligentBrah­manswhocanrecitethehundredthousandstanzas.

InIndiathereareknacksforacquiringintelligence.First,by

repeatedandcarefulreading,onemaygainintellectualpower,andsecond,thealphabet maystabilizethemind.Intendaysoramonthofpractice,one’sthoughtswillcomeoutgushinglikeafountain,andonecanunderstandwhateveronehasheardoncewithoutresortingtoaseconddiscussion.AsIhaveseensuchmenwithmyowneyes,itiscertainlynota falsehood.InEasternIndia,therelivedagreatmannamedCandragomin,whowasabodhisattva(abeingonthewaytoenlightenment)endowedwithgreattalentandeloquence.WhenIarrivedthere,thismanwasstillliving.Somebodyaskedhim,“Whichismoreharmful,pas­sionorpoison?”Herepliedatonce,“Poisonandpassionarereallyquitedifferentfromeachother.Poisoncanharmyouonlywhenyoutakeit,butpassionwillburnyouthemomentyouthinkofit.

TherewerealsoKasyapa-matangaandDharmaraksa,whospreadthegoodgospeltotheeasterncapitalofLuo-yang,and

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Paramartha,whoconveyedtheexcellentvoicetotheSouthSeas.Kumarajlva,thegreatvirtuousone,workedasamasterofvirtueinanalienland,whileXuanzang,theDharmateacher,performedthefunctionof ateacherinhishomeland.Alltheseteachers,bothofthepastandinthepresent,carriedforwardandspreadthelightof theSunoftheBuddha.Theypropagatedthetheoriesofbothexistenceandnonexistence,takingtheTripitakaastheirteacher,andpracticedmeditationaswellasdevelopedwisdom,

dependingonthesapta-bodhyahga(thesevenrequisitesforat­tainingenlightenment)astheirmaster.

Therearenowlivingin[Central]IndiatheDharmamasterJnanacandraofTiladhakaMonastery;RatnasimhaofNalandaMonastery;DivakaramitraofEasternIndia;TathagatagarbhainthesouthernborderlandofIndia;andSakyakirtiofSribhojaintheSouthSeas.(Yijing’srunningnote:He is nowlivinginSribhoja.Hehastraveledextensivelyinthefivepartsof Indiaandiswelllearned.)Allofthemmaybecomparedwiththeformerwisem*ninbrilliantintellect,andtheyfollowthetrackofpastsages.Inunderstandinghetuvidya,theytrytoemulateDinnaga,andwhileruminatinguponthetheoriesof theYogacaraSchool,theyrespect­fullycherishthememoryofAsanga.Intalkingaboutthedoctrineof voidness,they happilycoincidewithNagarjuna,andindiscuss­ingtheteachingof existence,they haveanintimateknowledgeofSamghabhadra.Ihad theopportunitytocomeintocontactwiththeseteachersoftheDharmaandreceiveprofoundinstructionsfromthem.IamhappytohaveacquirednewknowledgeofwhatIdid nothearbeforeandthatI couldreviewmyold lessons[throughtheirguidance].Inhopesoftransmittingthelampoftruth,IamreallygladtohaveheardtheDharmainthemorning,somuchsothatasmyhundredpointsofdoubtweresolvedlikedustbeingwashedaway,Iwouldnothaveregretteditif I weretodieintheevening.Iwasstillabletopickupsomepearlsthatwereleftbe­hindonVulturePeakandoftenobtainedgenuineones.WhileIcollectedscatteredjewelsintheDragonRiver,Icameuponthebestpiecesmorethanonce.

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Underthefar-reachingprotectionof thetriplegemandwiththefavorof theEmperorwhoisagreatdistanceaway,I wasabletostart myhomewardvoyagetotheeast.SailingovertheSouthSeasfromTamralipti,IarrivedinSribhoja,whereIhavebeensojourningforfouryears.Iamlingering herewithoutadateonwhichtocomebackhome.

35.OnKeepingLongHair

Toreceivefullordinationwithone’shairkeptlongissomethingunheardofinthefivepartsofIndia,norisitmentionedinthe

textsoftheVinaya-pitaka,becausenosuchthinghashappened230a

eversinceancienttimes.Ifamonkhadtheappearanceof alay­man,itwouldbedifficultforhimtoguardagainstcommittingfaults.Ifonecannotobservethedisciplinaryrules,whatistheuseofacceptingthem?Ifamanhasthepuremind[tobecomeamonk],heshouldask[ateacher]toshavehishair,putonthedyedrobe,purifyhisthoughts,andcherishemancipationashisaim.Heshouldobservethefiveandtenpreceptsperfectly.Hav­ingreceivedfullordinationwithaperfectmind,heshouldprac­ticetheruleslaiddownintheVinaya-pitaka.AfterhavingcompletedthestudyoftheYogacara-sastra,heshouldthenlearntheeightbranchworksdesignatedbyAsanga.(Yijing’srunning

note:(1)TheVijnapti-matrata-siddhi-vimsatika-karika,(2)theVijUapti-matrata-siddhi-trirnsika-karika,(3)theMahaydna-samgraha-sastra,(4)theAbhidharma-samuccaya-sastra,(5)theMadhyantavibhaga-sastra,(6)thePratityasamutpada-vyakhyd-sastra,(7)theMahayana-sutralankara-sastra,and(8)theKarma-siddhi-prakarana-sastra.AlthoughsomeworksonthislistwerecomposedbyVasubandhu,themerits[thattheycontributedto

theYogacaraSchool]shouldbeascribedtoAsanga.)Whenamonkhasmadeachievementsinthestudyofthehetuvidya,heshouldthenthoroughlyunderstandtheeightsastrasofDinnaga.(Yijing’srunningnote:(1)TheTrikala-pariksa-sastra,

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(2)theSamanyalaksana-pciriksa-sastra,(3)theAlambana-parlksci-sastra,(4)theHetu-mukha-sastra,(5)theSastraontheGateo fthePseudo-cause,(6)theNyaya-mukha-sastra,(7)theUpdddya-prajhapti-prakarana-sastra,and(8)thePramana-samuccaya-sastra.)InstudyingtheAbhidharma(metaphysics),amonkshouldreadthroughtheSixPadas(thesix ancillary works totheDharma-sahgani),andinlearningtheAgamas,heshouldmakeacompleteinvestigationofallfourofthem.Hewillthenbeabletosubdueheterodoxviewsanddefeatheretics,soastodeliberatetherightprinciplesforthewidesalvationoflivingbeingsandgiveguid­ancetirelesslytoallpeople.Thosewhocancontemplatethetwo­foldvoidness,keeptheeightfoldnoblepathintheirpureminds,

beintentonpracticingthefourmeditations,andstrictlyobserve

thedisciplinaryrulesofthesevensections[ofthePratimoksa]forlifearemonksofhighrank.

Therearesomepeoplewhocannotbehaveinthewaymen­tionedabove,butwhor*mainunstainedintheirprivatecham­bers,eventhoughtheyarelivingwiththeirfamilies.Theyareactuallylivingalone inhopesofgettingoutof theworld.Theybegforalmstopaytaxestothecourt,andwearcoarsegarmentsjusttohidetheirshame.Theyobservetheeightprecepts(Yijing’srun­ningnote:(1)nottokilllivingcreatures,(2) nottosteal,(3)nottoengageinsexualconduct,(4) nottotell lies,(5) nottodrinkintoxi­cants,(6)nottoplaymusic,weargarlands,oruseperfume,(7)nottositonahighorbigbed,and(8) nottotakefoodatwrongtimes)tilltheendoftheirlives,withamindtogaintheessentialwayofgettingoutoftransmigration.Andtheytakerefugeinandre­spectthethreehonoredoneswiththeirthoughtsconcentratedontheattainmentofnirvana.Suchpersonsarenextinrank.

Therearepeoplewhoareobligedtoliveintheconfinementoffamilylife,buttheysupport theirwivesandchildren,respecttheirseniorswithamindofveneration,treattheirjuniorswithkindconsideration,abidebythefiveprecepts,andalwaysobservethefourfastdays.(Yijing’srunningnote:Ontheeighthandfour­teenthorfifteenthdaysofthedarkhalfofthemoon,andtheeighth

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andfifteenthdaysofthebrighthalfofthemoon,theeightpre­ceptsshouldbeobserved;thisisknownastheholypractice.Ifoneobservesonlytheeighthpreceptwithoutkeepingtheotherseven,themeritgainedtherefromisverysmall.Theobservanceoftheeighthpreceptismeanttopreventviolationsoftheothersevenpreceptsandnotmerelyto keepthestomachhungryfornopurpose.)Theytreatotherswithhonestyandsympathyandhavethecapacitytomakethemselvesbeindustrious.Theylivebyafaultlessoccupationinorderto payofficialimpositions.Suchpeoplearealsoregardedasgoodmen.(Yijing’srunningnote.Afault­lessoccupation”meanstheprofessionoftrading,asitdoesnotcauseharmtolivingcreatures.Accordingtothecustomsof India,merchantsareheldinesteem,whilefarmersarenotregardedasimportant,becausethetillingof landinvolvesthekillingof livingthings.Sericultureandbutchering,whicharecausesofdeepsuffering,injurehundredsofmillionsofliveseveryyear.Whentheyarepracticedforalongtimenoonethinkstheyarewrong,butinone’sfuturelives,onewillsufferunlimitedpains.Onewhodoesnotfollowsuchoccupationsisdeemedfaultless.)

Asregardsthosevulgarpeoplewhoaresoignorantasnotto

knowaboutthe threerefugesandwholeadaimlessliveswithoutobservingasinglepreceptintheirlifetimes,unawarethatnir­vanaisastateoftranquilityandthatbirthanddeathrotatelikeawheel,andwhoalwayscommitsinfuldeeds,theyareinthe

lowestrank.

36.DisposalofthePropertyofaDeceasedMonk

Whenitisdeemeddesirabletodividethepropertyof adeceasedbhiksu,afulldescriptionofthemattercanbefoundintheVinaya.I will giveabriefaccountof ithereto provideareadyreference intimeof need.Firstof alloneshouldmakeaninquiryas towhetherhehadanydebts,orhehasleftawill,andifanyonenursedhim

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whilehewasill.Thesemustbeconsideredaccordingtothelaw,

230bandnothingcontrarytoreasonshouldbedone.Oneshouldknowthattheremainingthingsmaybedisposedofinspecificways.

ItissaidintheUdana(asectionoftheTripitaka):

Land,houses,shops,andbedding,Copper,iron,andleathergoods,Razors,jars,androbes,

Variousrodsandmiscellaneouslivestock,Drinks,food,andmedicine,

Beds,seats,andtitledeeds,

ThethreepreciousthingssuchasgoldandsilverEithermadeorunmadeintoarticles,

AllthosedifferentthingsMayormaynotbedivided.

Oneshouldknowhowtodifferentiatethem.ThiswastoldbytheWorld-honoredOne.

Bydifferentiation,itmeansthatlands,houses,shops,bedding,feltblankets,andcopperandironimplementsarenottobedi­vided.Amongthearticlesinthelast-mentionedcategory,largeandsmallironbowls,smallcopperbowls,doorkeys,needles,awls,razors,knives,ironladles,stoves,axes,chisels,etc.,togetherwiththeirbags,aswellasearthenvessels,suchasbowls,smallbowls,kundikasforkeepingcleanwater,oilpots,andpailsshouldbedistributed,whiletherestarenotto bedivided.Woodenandbam­boofurniture,leatherbedding,andhair-cuttingtools,maleandfemaleservants,beveragesandedibles,cornandbeans,as wellaslandandhouses,etc.,aretobetransferredtothecommunityofmonksfromthefourquarters.Allmovablethingsaretobekeptinthestorehousefortheuseofmonksfromthefourquarters.Immovableproperty,suchasland,buildings,villages,gardens,andhouses,shouldbetransferredtothecommunityofmonksfrom

thefourquarters.Allotherthings,suchasgarments,quilts,reli­giousrobes,andbathingclothes,dyedorundyed,aswellasleatherwork,oilbottles,shoes,footgear,andthelike,shouldbe

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distributedtothemonkswhoarepresentonthespot.Formerlyitwassaidthatagarmentwithsleeveswasnottobedivided,butthatawhitedoublerobecouldbedividedatones discretion.Longpolesmaybeusedasflagstaffsforhangingstreamersbeforethejambunada-prabhaimage(animageof theBuddhamadeofgoldfromtheJambuRiver).(Yijing’srunningnote:Vn&jambunada-prabhaimageismentionedintheVinaya.ItsoriginisthatwhentheBuddhawasnotamongtheassemblyofmonks,theybehavedwithoutstrictnessandsolemnity,som uchsothattheElderAnathapindadaaskedpermissionoftheWorld-honoredOne,say­ing,“Iwishtomakeajambunada-prabhaimageofthee,tobeinstalledat theheadof theassembly of monks.TheGreatTeacherconsented.)Theslenderrodsmaybeusedformakingtinstaffsto

becarried bybhiksuswhilegoinground[collectingalms].(Yijing’srunningnote:InSanskritatinstaffiscalledahikhala,represent­ingthesoundproducedbyit.Ancientpeopletranslatedtheword

as“t in ”becausethesoundiscausedbytin[rings].Itmaybecalledaringingstafforatinstaffatwill.ThetinstaffsIsawinIndiahaveanironringontopwithadiameterof two orthreeinches,inwhichisfixedabronzetubefourorfivefingersinlength[whichproducesasoundwhenpercussed].Thestaffismadeof wood,anditmaybethickorslenderaccordingtocirc*mstances.Itisso longthatitreaches theshoulders[whenheldvertically].Belowthetopthereisfastenedanironchainabouttwoincheslong,thelinksofwhichare either roundorelliptical.Each link isas largeasathumbandismadebybendingawiresoastoletthetwoendsmeetthroughanotherlink.Therearesixoreightlinksinthechainwhichisattachedtotheringonthetop.Theymaybemadeofcopperor ironas one likes.Thepurposeofmakingsuchastaffis towardoff cowsordogswhileoneiscollectingalms.Itisnotneces­sary toholdithighinatiresomemanner thatfatiguesone’smind.Moreover,somepeoplemakethewholestaffentirelyofironwithfourringsontop.This isheavyanddifficultforonetocarryabout,anditisverycoldforonetohold.Thisisnotinkeepingwiththeoriginalpurposeofthestaff.)

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Amongthequadrupeds,suchbeastsforridingaselephants,horses,camels,asses,andmulesaregiventotheroyalhousehold,whilecattleandsheepshould betransferredtothecommunityofmonksfromthefourquartersandmustnotbedivided.Suchar-

230ctidesasarmorandcoatsofmailshouldalsobegiventotheroyalhousehold,whilemiscellaneous weaponsmaybemadeintoneedles,awls,knives,andcrownsforthetinstaffsandthengiventothemonkswhoarepresentontheoccasion.(Yijin g’srunningnote:Iftherearenot[enough]forgeneraldistribution,theymaybegivenonlytotheseniormonks.)Suchthingsasnetsaretobemadeintoscreensforwindows.Thebestpaintsandyellow,vermilion,azure,blue,orgreendyestuffsaresenttotheshrinehallstobeusedforcoloringtheimages,whileredclayandinferiorbluesubstancesshouldbedistributedtothemonkswhoarepresentontheocca­sion.I f wineisnearlyturningsour,itmaybeburiedunderground,and whenithasbecomevinegar, monksmayeatit;butif itisstillwine,itshouldbediscardedandmustnotbesold.TheBuddhasaid,“Bhiksus,sinceyouhavebecomemonksundermyguidance,youshouldnotgivewinetoothersnordrinkityourselves.Youshouldnotevendripasingledropofwineintoyourmouthswiththetipofareed.”Ifoneleavensdoughwithwineordistillers’grain,ortakesbrothpreparedwithwinelees,oneincurstheguiltoftransgressingtheruleslaiddownintheVinaya;onemusthavenodoubtsaboutit.(Yijin g’srunningnote:InLing-yanMonas­tery,dissolvedyeastisoftenusedforleaveningdoughto avoidthefaultoftakingwine.)Allmiscellaneousmedicinesshouldbekeptinacleanstoreroomtobesuppliedtosickpersonswhenneeded.Allpreciousgems,pearls,andjadearedividedintotwoportions,onebeingusedfortheDharma,andtheothergiventothecom­munityofmonksfromthefourquarters.ThosefortheDharmaarespent forcopyingscripturesandmaintainingthelionseat[usedforpreachingtheDharma],whiletheobjectsforthemonksaredistributedtothosewhoarepresentontheoccasion.Bedsandcouches,i f inlaidwithjewels,shouldbesoldandtheproceedsdis­tributedtothemonkswhoarepresentontheoccasion,butwooden

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bedsshouldbetransferredtothecommunityofmonksfromthefourquarters.Allscripturesandtheircommentaries andannota­tionsarenottobedivided,butshouldbepreservedinthescrip­turelibraryforthecommonuseofmonksfromthefourquarters.Otherbooksshouldbesoldandtheproceedsdistributedtothemonkswhoarepresentontheoccasion.Thosereceiptsforloansthatareclaimableatoncemaybedividedrightaway.Ifnotclaim­ableatonce,theyshouldbekeptinthemonastictreasury,andwhenthemoneyisreclaimedatalatertime,itshouldbeusedtoreplenishthefundofthecommunityofmonksfromthefourquar­ters.Allgoldandsilver,eitherwroughtarticlesorunwroughtin­gots,shouldbedividedintothreeportionsfortheBuddha,theDharma,and theSangha.TheportionfortheBuddhashouldbespentonrepairingtheBuddhahallsandthestupascontaining[theBuddha’s]hairandnails,andformendingotherdilapidation.TheportionfortheDharmaisusedforcopyingscripturesandmaintainingthe lionseat.Theportionforthecommunityof monksshouldbesharedbythemrightaway.Thesixrequisitesofamonkshouldbegiventothepersonwhotookcareof thedeceasedwhenhewasonhissickbed.Othermiscellaneousthingsshouldbedis­posedofinasuitablewayasmentionedabove.ThissubjectisfullydeliberatedintheMahasamghika-vinaya.

37.UseofthePropertyoftheSangha

AtpresenttheclothingofthebhiksusinallthemonasteriesinIndiaisprovidedoutof[thestorehouseof]theresidentmonks.Thesurplusproduceof thefarmsandgardens,ortheprofitsgainedfromtreesandfruits,aredistributedtothemannuallytocoverthecostofclothing.Onemightaskthequestion:evencornandotherfoodstuffsleftbyadeceasedmonkaretransferredtothe

communityofmonks,sohowcananindividualmonksharethe23ia

beansandmillet,whicharethepropertyofthecommunity?Theanswermightbethatthealms-giversgaveuptheirvillagesand

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manorsinordertosupportthemonks.Didthatmeanthatonlyfoodwasto beprovidedwhiletheywereto beallowedto gonaked?Inconsiderationofthepracticeofprovidingclothingeventomeri­toriousservants,whyshoulditbeunsuitableforhouseholderstodothesame[formonks]?I f wereasoninthisway,itisharmlessforthemtosupplyclothingaswellasfood.Suchisthegeneralviewofthemonksof India.However,theVinayatextsaresome­timesexplicitandsometimesimplicitaboutthematter.

ThemonasteriesinIndiapossessspecialfarmsfortheirsup­plyofclothing,andthetemplesinChinahavetheirownplacesfromwhichclothingis obtained.Foodis also providedto bothmonksand laymen.Asthisisdoneaccordingtotheoriginalintentionofthealms-givers,itislogicallynotwrongforthemtopartakeofthefood.Alldonationsof fieldsandhousesandevenmiscellaneousthingsaregiventothemonasteriesasameansofprovidingthemonkswithfoodandclothing.Thereiscertainlynodoubtonthispoint.If theoriginalintentionofthealms-giversistogivedona­tionsforgeneraldistributionwithoutrestriction,thenthealms,thoughgiventothemonastery,maybeconsideredgiftsforall.Anyonewhopartakesofthefoodisfaultlessbecauseitiswhatthealms-giversexpectedbeforehand.ButinChina,monkslivingin­dependentlycannotgetclothingfromamonastery.Thustheyhavetoworkhardtomeettheirneeds,whichisreallyanobstacleintheircareer[ofspiritualcultivation].Eventhoughtheycansur­vivebyalms-begging,theyarenotsparedmentalorphysicalex­ertion.Butthosewhopermanentlyresideinamonasterywithfoodandclothingprovidedforthemmayleadaquietandunper­turbedlifewithoutgoingoutofthegateof themonastery;thenthingsaremucheasierforthem.Moreover,therearemonkswhopossessonlythethreerobesmadeof rags,begfoodfromhousetohouse,liveunderatreeinaforest,sustainthemselvesbyrightlivelihood,practicemeditationtodevelopwisdominwardlysoas

tofixtheirthoughtonthepathofmoksa(emancipation),andshowkindnessandcompassionoutwardly.Onewhocanleadsuchalife

tohislastdaysisamanofthehighestrank.

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Thepropertyofthecommunityofmonks,suchasgarments,quilts,mattresses,andthelike,aswellasothermiscellaneousarticles,shouldbeequallydistributedtothemonks,butnotgiventothosewholiveindependently.Thispropertyshouldbehandledwithmorecarethanonewouldusewithone’sownbe­longings.Whenbiggerdonationsarrive,smalleronesshouldbepickedoutandgivenaway.ThisistheholyteachingexpresslytaughtbytheBuddha.

Whenthispropertyisusedintherightway,onewillnotbe

guiltyoratfault.Thesethingsaregoodenoughtonourishone’sbody,andcanspareonethetroubleof acquiringsustenance.Howcanweallowamonasterytobeenormouslyrich,withcornandwheatgoingrotteninthegranaries,maleandfemaleservantscrowdinginthehouses,andmoneyandwealthaccumulatinginthetreasury,whilethemonksdonotknowhowtomakeuseofthembuthangtogetherinpoverty?Whatshouldorshouldnotbedonedependsuponthediscernmentof wisepeople.

Therearesomemonasterieswherenocommonfoodissup­

plied,butthemonks[inchargeoftheestablishment]dividethemonasticpropertyamongthemselvestoprepareprivatemealstotheexclusionofotherresidentmonks.Theyarethepersonsresponsibleforthewronglivelihoodofthemonkscomingfromthetenquarters.Astheypracticedsuchunlawfuldeedsoftheirownaccord,whocansubstituteforthemtosufferthepainfulre­sultsinthefuture?

38.TheImproprietyofSelf-Immolation

AmongBuddhistmonkstherearequiteanumberofbeginners

whoareendowedwithafiercelyenthusiastictemperament,but23ib

whodonotknowhowtowintheconfidenceoftheirpredecessorsbymasteringthesacredscriptures.Theythinkthatfingerburn­ingisanactof religiousvalorandthatthecauterizationof theirownfleshisadeedofgreatbliss.Theydosuchthingsasthey

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wish,withthedecisionmadein theirownminds.Butwhatis statedinthescripturesconcernsthelaity,whoareexhortedtosacrificeeventheirownbodies,nottomention their wealth,whichisapartfromthebodies.Therefore,thescripturesonly mentionthose peoplewhohavethemindto do so.Noallusionis madeto homelessmonks,becausethemonkshavetoabidebythedisciplinaryrulesoftheVinaya-pitaka.Onlyconductwhichisnotinviolationoftherulesmaybeconsideredtobeinagreementwiththescriptures;ifitisagainsttherules,itcannotbedone.Eveniftheshrinehallis over­grownwithweeds,notasinglestalkofgrassshouldbedamaged;andif amonkishungryevenwhenheisaloneinthewilderness,heshouldnoteataslittleashalfa*grainofrice[atanimpropertime].AsPriyadarsanawasalayman,itbefittedhimtoburnhisarmsasofferingtoaBuddha.TheBodhisattvamightforsakehis

maleandfemaleoffspring,butshouldabhiksutrytolookforchil­

dreninordertoforsakethemasalms?AstheMahasattvagavehiseyesandbody,somendicantswereaskedtogiveuptheireyesandbodiesinalms-giving.AlthoughKingRsisvaraonceslaugh­tered[fivehundredBrahmans],isthatwhatobserversoftheVinayashoulddo?KingMaitribalasacrificedhimself[tofeedfiveyaksademons],butthisisnotwhatmonksshoulddo.

RecentlyIheardthatsomeyoungpeopledevotedtheirmindssozealouslytothepursuitof theWaythattheythoughtthatbyburningtheirownbodiesthey mightattainenlightenment.Thustheymadelightoftheirlivesanddiscardedtheirbodiesoneafteranother,notknowingthatitisdifficultforonetoberebornintheformofmanintensandhundredsof kalpas,andthatevenifoneisbornasahumanbeingathousandortenthousandtimes,onemayyetbeshortofintelligence,seldomhearingofthesevenbodhyangas(thesevenrequisitesforattainingenlightenment)andhavingnochancetomeetthethreehonoredones.

NowtheywereborninexcellentplacesandengagedtheirmindsinstudyingthewonderfulDharma,buttheyforsooktheirexquisitebodiestooreadilyafterhavingacquiredonlyonestanza,

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andturnedtheircorporealsubstanceintosacrificialofferings,whichwerenotweightygiftsatall,whentheyhadju stlearnedhow tomeditateonimpermanence. Theyshouldhave persistentlyobservedthedisciplinaryrulesinordertorequitethefourkindsof favors,andsteadilyponderedonthegateofmeditationso as tofreethemselvesfromthethreerealmsof existence.Theyshouldhavehad greatapprehensionaboutsmall faults, ju stasonepro­tectsone’sfloating bag whileswimmingacrossthedeepsea,andshouldhavepracticedwisdomguardingthemselvessteadily[againsterrors],as onetakes precautionswhilegallopingonthinice.Then, withtheassistance of friends ofvirtue,theywouldhavebeenabletoremaincomposedwithoutfearontheirdeathbedswithrightthoughtcherishedintheirminds,wishingto bereborninthefuturetomeetMaitreyaBuddha.

Iftheyhadwishedtogainthelesserfruition[of theHinayana],

theymighthavefollowedtheeightfoldnoblepath.Hadtheyin­tendedtolearnthegreatercause[oftheMahayana],thatwouldhavebeenthecommencementofstudyingitinthreeperiods,eachconsistingofanasamkhyeya(anexceedinglylargenumberof)kalpas.Buttheyrashlycutofftheirlives.Ireallydonotknowthereasonforit.

Theguiltofcommittingsuicideisnextonlytoabreachofthe

firstsection[ofthefourgrievousfaults]ofthedisciplinaryrules.WhenIexaminedtheVinaya-pitaka,Ineversawanypassageallowingonetocommit,suicide.Forthedestructionofpassion,theBuddhahaspersonallytaughttheimportantmethod.Howcanonecutoffdelusionbyburningoneself?TheBuddhadisal­lowedcastration,andontheotherhandhepraisedthosewhopreservedthelivesoffishesinapond.Hisgoldenwordsforbadeustobreakthegravepreceptsatwill.Itiscertainlynottheholyteachingof theBuddhatofixourmindsonsuchapractice.ButthosewhopracticetheWayofthebodhisattva,withoutrestrict­ingthemselvesbytheVinayarules,inordertoperformself-sacrificeforthesalvationofothers,arebeyondourdiscussion.

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39.TheBystandersBecomeGuilty

23icSuchactionsasbodyburningaremanifestationsofinneremo­tions.Twoorthreeintimatefriendsmayworktogethertoinsti­gateneophytestocommitsuicide.Thosewhodiefirstinthiswayareinvolvedinasthulatyayaoffense(agrosstransgression),andthosewhofollowsuitwillcertainlyincurtheguiltofaparajika(expulsionfromtheOrder)offense,fortheyrefusedtoliveinkeep­ingwiththeprohibitiverulesandwishedtodiebybreakingtheprecepts.Theypersistedin[suchanevilpractice]andneverstud­

iedtheBuddha’steachings.I f amonk persuadesotherstoputtheideaofsuicideintoaction,hecommitsasinthatrendershim,asthesaying goes,as uselessas aneedlewithoutaneye.Ifhesaystoanotherman,“Whydoyounotjum pintotheflames?”,heincursunpardonableguilt,likeabrokenstonethatcannotbecomeintactagain.Oneshouldbeverycautiousinthismatter.

Aproverbsays,“Itisbettertorepay thekindnessofothersthanto destroyone’sownlife,and itisbetterto fosterone’smoralcharacterthantodefileone’sname.”Itwasforthesakeof savinglivingbeingsfromsufferingthattheBodhisattvaoncethrewhim­selfdowntofeedastarvingtigress,buttocutone’sownfleshinsubstitutionforadoveshouldnotbedonebyasramana.WearereallynotofsuchstatusastobeputonaparwiththeBodhisattva.

IhavemerelymadearoughstatementabouttherightandwrongofthisaccordingtotheTripitaka.Thewiseshouldcare­fullydiscernbetweengoodandevil.ButmanyamandrownsintheGangesRivereveryday,andbesidethemountainnearGaya,morethanonemancommitssuicideeachday.Somepeoplestarvethemselves andrefuseto eatfood,orclimb uptreestothrowthem­selvesdown.SuchmisledpeoplewerecriticizedbytheWorld-hon­oredOneasheretics.Someothersinflictuponthemselvesthetormentofcastration.TheseactionsaredeeplyatvariancewiththetextsoftheVinaya.Whenamanwasattemptingtocommitsuchfaults,others,fearingto incurguiltuponthemselves,didnotdaretodissuadehimfromdoingso.Ifhelosthislifeinthisway,

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helostthegreatobjectofhisexistenceaswell.Forthisreason,theBuddhalaiddownrulesdisallowingsuchactions.Menofsu­perior wisdomwillneverdosuchthings.I shall nowrelateinthenextchapterthetraditionshandeddown bythevirtuousones ofancienttimes.

40.ThingsNotDonebyVirtuousMonksofOld

Asregardsmyteachers,mypersonaltutorwastheDharmamas­terShanyu,andmy ritualinstructor,theDhyana masterHuizhi.WhenI wasoversevenyearsold,Ihadthelucktoservethemastheirpupil.Bothofthemweremonksofgreatvirtue,livingatShen-tongMonastery,whichwasbuiltbytheDhyanamasterLang,asageofthe Jin-yuValleyofMountTai.TheirfamilytieswereatDe-zhouandBei-zhourespectively.Thetwovirtuousmonksthoughtthatdwellinginthemountainswasgoodonlyforthem­selves;itwasnotthewaytobenefitothers.Thustheywentto­gethertoPing-lin,where,closetoacleanbrook,theytookuptheir

pureabodeatTu-kuMonastery,locatedsomefortylitothewestofthecapitalcityofQi-zhou.Theyusedtoprepareunlimitedamountsof foodtomakeofferingswithoutrestriction,andwhat­everalmsthey hadreceivedtheygaveawaytootherswithplea­sure.Itmaybesaidthattheirfulfillmentofthefourgreatvowswasaslimitlessasheavenandearth,andthattheypracticedthefourall-embracingvirtuesforthesalvationoflivingbeingsasuncountableasdustandsand.Theyrespectfullyconstructedtemplesandperformedplentyofmeritoriousdeeds.NowIshallgiveabriefaccountofthesevenvirtuesoftheDharmamaster,[myteacherShanyu,]asfollows:

1.TheeruditionoftheDharmamaster.Hestudiedthe

Tripitakaas hismajorcourseoflearning,butalsotookaninterestinthevariousschoolsofthought.HewaswellversedinbothCon­fucianismandBuddhism,andwasperfectatmasteringthesix

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232aarts.Asregardsthesciencesofastronomyandgeography,andthecraftsofdivinationandcalendricalcalculation,hecouldprobeintotheir mysterieswheneverhehad themindto doso.Greatwastheseaofwisdominhim,withinexhaustibletidesflowingoutofit.Brilliant washisgardenofliteraryachievements,inwhichluxu­riantflowersalwaysbloomedwithoutfading!Hiswritings,hispronouncingdictionaryof theTripitaka,as wellassomewordbooksof his,arequitepopularintheworld.Heoftensaidabouthimselfthatifhedidnotknowaword,itwasnotawordatall.

2.TheversatilityoftheDharmamaster.Hewasanexpertcalligrapher,writingChinesecharactersinthesmallerzhuanstyleinventedbyLiSiandalsointhegreaterzhuanstyleoriginatedbyShiZhou.HewasalsogoodatwritingtheofficialstyleusedbyZhongYouaswellasthecursivescriptshapedbyZhangZhi.HehadaskeenanearformusicasZhongZiqi,whowasabletodis­cernwhetherYuBoya wasdepictingloftypeaksorflowingstreamswithhisseven-stringedzither.HecouldmanipulatetheadzeaswellastheartisanShi,whowipedawayaspeckofchalk,astiny

asafly’s wing,dottedonthetipof aman’snosebycuttingitwithhishatchetwithout injuringtheman’snose.Thisiswhatissaid,thatawisemanisnotautensil[ofonepurpose],

3.TheintelligenceoftheDharmamaster.HecouldreadthroughtheNirvanaSutrainoneday,butwhenhefirstrecitedthetext,ittookhimfourmonthstocompletetherecitation.Hedidresearchintotheabstrusetheoriesandcleverlyprobedthemysteriousteachings.Ineducatingalittleboy,heusedtoguidehimwiththedoctrinesoftheHinayanaandwas neverimpatientwithhim.Whenheinstructedamanofgreaterintelligence,hewouldimpartall heknewtohimas ifpouringwaterintoaperfectvessel,withthebenefitofofferingtreasuretohispupil.AttheendoftheSuidynasty,astheWaywasonthedecline[intheregionwherehewas living],heremovedtothePrefectureof Yang.Whenthelocalmonkssawhim,theyallsaidthathewasastupidpersonbecausehewassimpleandunadornedinappearance.TheyaskedtheDharmamastertoreadtheNirvanaSutra,andappointed

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twominormonkstooverseetherecitationsentencebysentence.Hisvoiceinreadingthescripturewasgraveandcadenced.Be­tweensunriseandsunset,hecompletedhisreadingofthistext,whichwaskeptinthreeslipcases.Allthepeoplepraisedandcongratulatedhimatthetime,biddinghimrestandremarkingthatitwasarareoccasion.Allpeopleknowaboutthisevent;itisnotmerelymybiasedeulogy.

4.TheliberalityoftheDharmamaster.Wheneverhepur­

chasedanythinginthemarket,healways paidthepriceaskedbythevendor,nomatterwhetherit was highor low;heneverbar­gainedto beatthepricedown.Ifamancametopayoff adebttohim,hewouldrefusetoacceptthe reimbursem*nt.Peopleof histimeconsideredhimamanofunsurpassedgenerosity.

5.ThelovingkindnessoftheDharmamaster.Heattachedmoreimportancetorighteousnessthantowealthandfollowedthepracticeofthebodhisattva.Heneverrefusedtogiveanythingtoonewhobeggedforit.Hewouldgivethreecoinsregularlyeverydayasalmstothepoor.

Onceinacoldmonthofwinter,aguestmonknamedDao’ancamefromadistanceinasnowstorm,andbothhiscalvesandfeetwerefrostbitten.Whilehewasstayinginavillageforafewdays,hischilblainsfesteredwithpus.Thevillagerssenthimtothemonasteryinacart.TheDharmamasterhadmadeanewcape,andwhenhehadjustputitonforthefirsttimetogooutofthemonastery,hecameupontheguestmonkatthegateandin­stinctivelywrappedthemonk’swoundwithhisnewcape.Aby­standertriedto stophim,saying,“Youshould usesomeoldclothesinsteadof soilingthisnewgarment.” ButtheDharmamastersaid,“Whentryingtoaidonewhoissufferingfrombitterpain,thematterissourgentthatnotimeisleftforustolookforanythingelse.”Thepeopleofthetimewhosaworheardabouttheeventpraisedhimhighly.Althoughthiswasnotaveryimportantmat­ter,fewpeoplewouldcaretodolikewise.

6.TheassiduityoftheDharmamaster.Hereadthrougheach

oftheeightversionsofthePrajna-paramita-sutraahundredtimes

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andalsorecitedthewholeTripitakafrombeginningtoend.Heexertedhimselfdayandnighttopracticetheessentialdeedsfor

232bbeingreborninthePureLand.HekepttheBuddhahallandthemonks’abodecleaninhopesofattainingthestageofimperturb­ability.Hemostlywalkedbarefoot,lestheshouldaccidentallyin­jureinsects.Hewasneveridleindirectinghisthoughtstowardsthedevelopmentofhismind.HeswepttheshrinehallcleantomakeitasbeautifulasthelotusflowersthatunfoldtogivebirthtothebeingsofninegradesintheLandof PeaceandHappiness,andheadornedthescripturechamberassplendidlyasVulturePeak, wherefourkindsof bloomsraineddownfromheaven[whentheBuddhawaspreachingtheDharma],Allwhosawhisreli­giousactscouldnotbutpraisehismerits,whichheperformedwithoutfeelingtiredtilltheendofhislife.Besidesrecitingscrip­tures,healsochantedthenameofAmitabhaBuddha.Hewasalwaysperfectindemeanorwhetherhewaswalking,standing,sitting,orlyingdown,andneveridledawayasinglemomentasshortastheshadowofthesunmovingoneinch.Thebeansusedaschipstocountthenumberof hisgooddeedswouldmaketwobrimfulcartloads,andtherewasmorethanoneway thathegaveextensivesuccortoothers.

7.TheDharmamaster’sprecognitionofhisdeath.Oneyearpriortohisdeath,theDharmamastercollectedhisownwritings

andothermiscellaneousbooksonhistoryandpiledthemupinabigheap,readytobetornintopiecestobeusedasmortarformakingtwostatuesoftheguardiangodsinthemonastery.Hisdisciplescameupandremonstratedwithhim,saying,“IfYourReverencemustusepaper,weventuretosubstitute blankpaper[foryourwritings].”Themastersaid,“Myindulgenceinlitera­turehasledmeastrayforalongtime.ShallInowallowittomisleadothers?I fIdo,itwouldbelikeaskingsomeonetodrinkpoisonedwine,orleadingsomeoneontoadangerouspath.Thatisnotpermissible.Ifonegivesupone’sproperdutiesanddevotesoneselfto thestudyof sidelessons,onecommitsablunderagainsttheBuddha’ssuperiorinstructions.Onemustnotdotootherswhat

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onewouldnotwishotherstodotooneself.”Thenhisdisciplesretiredwithsatisfaction,buthepresentedthemwiththeAnalyticDictionaryo fCharactersandsomeotherwordbookswiththein­struction,“Whenyouhavejustacquiredanoutlineoftheclassicsandhistoryandhavemasteredacertainnumberofcharacters,

youshouldthendevoteyourselvestothestudyofthesuperiorscriptures,andmustnotattachyourselvestosuchworldlyloreandmakeitahindrance[toyourprogress].”

Beforehisdeath,themastertoldhisdisciples,“Ishallcer­

tainlybegoing inaboutthreedays,andI shall diewitha broominmy hand.Myremainsshouldbe leftinthewidemarshland.” Earlyinthemorningafewdayslater,hecametoacleanstream.Underadesolatewhitepoplarhewalkedtoandfrobesideaclusterofsmallgreenbamboos.Thenhesatdowninsolitudeandpassedawayholdingabroominhishand.

Whenthedaygraduallydawned,hisdisciple,theDhyanamasterHuili,cametohiminthemorning,andwassurprisedtofindthattheteacherwassilent.Hetouchedtheteacher’sbodyandfeltthathisheadwaswarmwhilehisfeetandhandswerealreadycold.Thenhewailedaloudandsummonedeverybodyfromdistantplacesinthefourquarters.Themonksweptsadly,inasceneresemblingthatatGoldRiver withbloodshedontheground[whentheBuddhapassedawayneartheriver].Thelaydiscipleswailedsorrowfullyjustaswhenthe lustrouspearlsbroketopiecesonJadeMountain.TheylamentedovertheearlywitheringofthetreeofbodhiandsighedwithregretthattheboatofDharmashouldhavesunksosuddenly.Hediedattheageofsixty-three,andhisremainswereburiedinthewestgardenofthe monastery.Afterhisdeath,heleftbehindonlyhisthreerobes,a pairof shoes,andbeddingforhisdailyuse.

WhentheDharmamasterdied,Iwastwelveyearsold.Since

theGreatElephanthaddeparted,Ihadnowheretogotoseekrefuge.SoIgaveupmystudyofworldlybooksanddevotedmyselftothelearningofsacredtexts.Attheageoffourteen,Iwasad­mittedtotheOrder.WhenIwaseighteenIintendedtotravelto

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232cIndia,butmydesirewasnotfulfilledtillIwasthirty-sevenyearsold.Onthedayofmydeparture,Ivisitedthetombofmylateteachertopaymyrespectsandbidfarewelltohim.Itwasintheseasonwhenfrostedtreesformedadomeoverthegraveandpe­rennialgrassesfilledthecemetery.Althoughthespiritualwayseparatedmefrommyteacher,Ipaidhonortohimasif hewerepresentbeforeme.Lookingaroundattheplace,Imadeastate­mentofmywishestogoabroadinthehopesofacquiringmeritsforthedeceasedandtorepaythedeepkindnessIhadreceivedfrommybenignmaster.

TheDhyanamaster(Huizhi)paidspecialattentiontothestudyof theVinayaandconcentratedhis mind inmeditation.Hewasdili­gentinspiritualpracticediningthesixperiodsof thedayandnightwithoutfeelingtired,andheguidedthefourgroupsofdevoteesfrommorningtillevening,neverbeingfatigued.Itmaybesaidthathewasevenmorequietandpeacefulwhenhe wasinaboisterousandtumultuousenvironment,andthatheassociatedwithmonksandlaymenwithoutshowingprejudicetoanyone.Herecitedthe

Saddharma-pundarika-sutraonceadayformorethansixtyyears,havingthusreadthesutraovertwentythousandtimesinall.Al­thoughhe livedin theturbulenttimes attheendof theSui dynasty,whenhehadtoshiftfromoneplacetoanotherasdirectedbyfate,henevergaveuphismindofreadingthesutra.Hepreservedhissixsenseorgansinpurityandmaintainedthefourphysicalele­mentsinpeaceandharmony,neversufferingfromanydiseaseinsixty years.Eachtimeherecitedthesutrabesidea brook,aparrotwouldcometostaywithhim,andwheneverhechantedstanzasinthehall,apheasantinspiredbyhisvoicealwayscametolistentohisintonation.Hewasgoodatunderstandingthesentimentofmusic,and wasparticularlyadeptatwriting thecursiveandofficialstylesof calligraphy.HewasinexhaustibleinpreachingtheDharma

toguideothers.Althoughhedidnotfixhismindonthestudyofsecularbooks,hewasintrinsicallytalentedinunderstandingthem.

HecomposedboththeStanzaontheSixParamitdsandtheLiturgyofMakingVowsbylamplightatTu-kuMonasteiy.

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WhenhehadwashedhimselfcleantocopytheSaddharma-pundarika-sutrawithapiousmind,heselectedfromamongthehandwritingoffamouscalligraphersandadoptedthebeststyle

forcopyingthescripture.Whilehewasdoingso,hekeptanaro­maticsubstanceinhismouthso asto exhalefragrantbreathafterhavingbathedhimselfclean.Suddenlyasariraappearedonthescripturethroughhisinspiration.Whenthecopywascompleted,thetitlewaswritteningoldonalabelpastedonthe manuscript,whichshonebrilliantlytogether with thesilverycharactersofthescripture.Itwaspreservedinapreciouscasket,whichwasasre­splendentasthejaderollersof thescrollsofthehandwrittenscrip­ture.WhentheEmperorvisitedMountTai,hecameto knowabouttheeventandhadthemanuscriptbroughttotheimperialpalace

asaholyobjectforveneration.Bothteachersweresuccessorstothelatesage,theDhyanamasterLang.

TheDhyanamasterLanglivedduringthetwoQindynasties

andwaswellknownasaparagonforthefivegroupsofBuddhistfollowers.Appearingatthegateofeachalms-giver,hereceivedofferingsfromallquarters.Doingthingstothesatisfactionof thepeople,hetaughtthemallaccordingtocirc*mstances.Forthesakeofconvertingthosewhoarebeyondthehumanworld,histemplewasnamedShen-tongTemple(theTempleofMiraculousPowers).Hisspiritualvirtuesarehardforustounderstand.Hisdeedsarerecordedindetailinaseparatebiography.

Atthattimethereigningmonarchpaidhomage[tothe

Buddha],andhissubjectswerefilledwithdevotion.When[Lang]hadtheintentionofbuildingatemple,hewentintothemoun­tainsandencounteredatigerroaringattheNorthernRiver.Whenhecameoutoftheplace,heheardahorseneighingintheSouth­ernValley.Theheavenlywellfromwhichwaterwasdrawnwasneverdrainedaway,whilethecelestialgranarywhichprovidedricewasalwaysfull.Althoughhisdivinetraceshavelongbeenburiedinoblivion,hisinfluenceremains withusand hasnotfadedaway.He,mytwoteachers,andthevirtuousabbot,theDhyanamasterMingde,werewellversedintheVinayaandgraspedthe

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gistsofthescriptures,inwhichnosuchpracticesasfingerburn-233aingandflesh-cauterizationweretaught.Asinstructorsoftheirdisciples,theyprohibitedthemfromdoingsuchthings.Ireceived

theirinstructioninperson;itiscertainlynothearsay.

Weshouldalsocarefullyobservethedeedsofancientsagesandlistentotheadmonitionsofformerteachers.Sincethetimewhenthewhitehorse[thatcarriedBuddhisttextstoChinaforthefirsttime]wasunbridled,andaftertheblueelephantwasunsaddled,Kasyapa-matangaandDharmaraksailluminedtheDivineLandasthesunandmoon,andKangSenghuiandFaxianserved,bytheirexample,asthefordorbridgetotheLandofAbundance.Dao’anandHuiyuancrouchedliketigerssouthoftheYangziandHanrivers,andHuixiuandFaliwerelikeeagleshoveringhighnorthoftheYellowandJ irivers.ThedisciplesoftheDharmafollowedoneafteranotherinsuccession,withtheripplesofwisdomrollingcontinuouslyinpurity,whilelaypeoplepraisedandglorifiedthefragranceof theDharmawithoutcease.Wehaveneverheardthatanyofthemadvisedotherstoburntheirfingers,nordidweseeanyonepermittingthepracticeofcauterizingone’sownbody.Theobjectlessonisputbeforeoureyes,anditisuptothewisetotakeitwithcare.

Duringsparetimeintheevening,theDhyana master[Huizhi]oftensympathizedwithmeinmyboyhoodandgavemeinstruc­tionsingentlewords.Sometimeshetoldmestoriestodivertmefromsadthoughtsofmymother,aspeopleuseyellowleafofthepoplar,sayingitisgold,tosoothea cryingbaby.Atothertimeshespoketomeabouttheparableofyoungcrowsthatfedtheirpar­entsback,advisingmetorepaythekindnesswithwhichIhadbeenbroughtup.Hesaid,“Youmustworkhardforthecontinu­anceandprosperityofthetriplegemsothatitmaybeeverlast­ing.Youshould notindulgeyourselfinthestudyof various worldlybooksandspendyourlifetimeinvain.”AsIwasthenonlytenyearsold,Icouldonlylistentohisadvice,butcouldnotunder­standitsdeepmeaning.WheneverIwenttopayrespecttohiminhischamberatthefifthwatchearlyinthemorning,hewould

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alwaysstrokemeonmyweakshoulders withkindness,ju stlikealovingmotherfondlingherchild.Wheneverhehadanydeli­ciousfood,hewouldoftennottasteitbutpresentittome.WhenIaskedhimforanything,heneverdeniedmyrequest.TheDharmamaster[Shanyu]wasverykindinlookingafterme,thoughheactedasastrictfathertome,whiletheDhyanamas­ter[Huizhi]showedmeallthetendernessofamother.Thusmyrelationshipwithmyteacherswassoperfectthatnothingmorehadtobeaddedtoit.

WhenIreachedthequalifiedagetoreceivefullordination,

theDhyanamaster[Huizhi]wasmyupadhyaya(officiantattheceremony).Aftermyordination,onequietnightwhenhewaswalkingroundanimageoftheBuddha,hesuddenlylitincense,sheddingtearsofemotion,andexhortedme,“ItisalongtimesincetheGreatSageenterednirvana,andhisteachingisnowmisinterpreted.Manypeopletakedelightinacceptingthepre­cepts,butfewofthemactuallyobservethem.Youmustberesolute

inkeepingthemajorprohibitiverulesandneverviolatethecom­mandmentsof thefirstsectionof theprecepts.If youcommittheother offenses,I willgoandsuffer inhell inyourstead.Youmustnotbumyourfingers,norshouldyouincinerateyourownbody.

Onthedaywhentheimperialsanctionwasreceived,IwashappilyadmittedintotheholyOrder bythekindnessofmyteacher.SincethenIhavedevotedmyselfwithutmostefforttothefulfillmentofmyambition,notdaringtoinfringeonanyofthedisciplinaryrules.Evenasmalloffensewouldarouseagreatfearinme.InthismannerI carefullystudiedtheVinayaforfiveyears.TheVinayamasterFali’scommentariesdiscussedthedeepandabstrusepoints,whiletheVinaya masterDaoxuan’swritingsdealtwiththeprincipalgists.WhenIwasacquaintedwiththejudg­mentofobservanceandviolationsofthedisciplinaryrules,IwasaskedbymyteachertogivealectureontheVinaya.Whileat­

tendinghissermonsontheLargerSukhavativyuha-sutra,Ibeggedformyfoodonceadayandalwaysremainedsittingwithoutlyingdowntosleep.Althoughthemonasteryintheforestwasdistant

175

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

fromthevillage,Inevergaveupthepracticeofalms-begging.WheneverIthinkofthekindinstructionsofmygreatteacher,my

233btearsdropdownfromwhenceIdonotknow.

Hencewerealizethatwhenabodhisattvatriesoutofcom­passiontosavesufferingbeings,heiswillingtothrowhimselfintotheflamesof agreatfire.Whenahouseholderhaspityonapoorchild[asnarratedintheparablementionedintheLotusSutra],hepeepsinthenarrowdoorofasmallcottage.Thisbe­havioriscertainlynoterroneous.AsIalwaysattendedthemas­

terathis feetandnever wenttoanydistantplaceto listentoalecture,onedayhedeignedto say to me, “AtpresentIhaveotherdisciplestowaituponme.Youshouldnotrelinquishyourstudiestostayherefornothing.”ThusItraveledwithmypewter staffinhandtotheregionoftheHouseofEasternWei,whereIdevoted

myselftothestudyoftheAbhidharma-samuccaya-sastraandthe

Mahayana-samgraha-sastra.Then,carryingmysatchel withme,Iproceededtothewesterncapital,whereinIbegantoreadand

conovertheAbhidharma-kosa-sastraandtheVijhapti-matrata-siddhi-sastra.

JustbeforeIstartedmyjourney[toIndia],Ireturnedfromthewesterncapitaltomynativeplacetoseektheadviceofmygreatteacher[Huizhi].Isaidtohim,“Venerablesir,asyouaregettingadvancedinage[Ishouldnottakealongjourneyawayfromyou],butI wishtotravelfartoseewhatIhave neverheardbeforeinhopesofgaining greatbenefits.Idarenotmakethedeci­sionbymyself. ”Myteacher exhortedme,“Thisisagreatchanceforyou,whichwillnotcomeasecondtime.Beinginspiredbyyourgoodreasons,whyshouldIcherishpersonalfeelingsanymore?Evenifm yspiritisreleasedfromexistence,IwillstillbeabletowitnessyoutransmittingthelampofDharma.Itbefitsyoutogoonyourjourneyatonce;youshouldnotlingeranymoretolookbackuponthingsleftbehind.Ishallcertainlysharewithyouthejoyofvisitingandpayinghomagetotheholyplacesofpilgrimage.AsthisisanimportantmatterconcerningtheprosperityoftheDharma,youshouldmakeyourtripflawless.”

176

FascicleFour

Havingreceivedmyteacher’skindinstruction,whichIcouldnotdisobey,IembarkedatGuang-zhouintheeleventhmonthofthesecondyearofXian-hengandsailedfortheSouthSeas.ThusItraveledthroughvariouscountriesand arrivedinIndiawithmypewterstaff.Ontheeighthdayofthesecondmonthinthe fourthyearofXian-heng,Ireached the countryofTamralipti,whichisaseaportofEasternIndia,whereIstayedtillthefifthmonth,whenIresumedm yjourneywestwardswithsomecompanionsandreachedNalandaand theDiamondSeat.Afterhavingworshipedatalltheholyplaces,IcametoSrlbhojabeforelong.

Itmaybesaidthatmyteachersweregoodcounselorswho

wereperfectincontinenceandchastityastaughtbytheBuddha,theTamerofMen.Theywerebornasoutstandingmodelmenoftheirgenerationtomeet theneedsof theworld.ItwasundertheirpersonalinstructionthatIwasbroughtuptomanhood.ThatIluckilymetthesetwoteachersatthefordtoferryacrosstheriverofrebirthwasjustlikehavingapilotwithgoodeyesightonaraftforcrossingthesea.Sinceevengooddeedsandkindnessesdoneinasmallwayareglorifiedwithsongsandmusic,whyshouldInotwriteeulogisticcompositionsinpraiseofthegreatwisdomandbenevolenceofmyteachers?

Hereismypoem:

Virtuousaremyfatherand mother,Whosupportedme inmanykalpas.WhenIwasinmychildhood

Theysentmetobrilliantteachers.

Theyceasedlovingmewiththesheddingof tears.IpracticedwhatIhadlearned

Anddependedonvirtueandthepreceptiverules.

Beingillustriousasthetwoilluminators,

Thevirtueofmytutorsiscomparabletoheavenandearth.

Theysharpenedmyswordofwisdom

AndnourishedmybodyofDharma.

177

AEecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

Theyguidedandsupportedme,TirelesslygivingmeinstructionWithoutsleepevenatmidnight,

Oftenappeasingtheirhungerwithabelatedsupper.Amanofsuperiorvirtueshowsoffnovirtue;

Thatisprofoundbeyondourperception.TheyconcealedtheirtalentsonMountTai,HeldtheirvirtuesinstoreintheregionofQi.Vastwastheirseaofwisdom,

Andexuberanttheirgroveofmeditation.Resplendentwastheirliterarygenius,

Radiantasthemorningsunweretheirmindsinconcentration.

Arealhardobjectmaybegroundbutcanneverbeattenuated,

Atrulywhitethingdippedindarkdyeisnotblackened.

Dyinginsitting,myteachershowedamarvelousmanifestation,

Inspiredbyhim,wonderfullyenough,apheasantlistenedtohisrecitation.

WhenIwasayoungster,

Oneofthempassedawaybeforetheother.Iturnthemeritsofallmygooddeeds

Asperfumetobeofferedtothedeceased.

Irepaythekindnessof theonewhohasgoneforever,Irequitethegraceoftheotherwhoisalivebutfaroff.

Iwishtomeetthematallplacessoastoprolongourhappinessandreceivetheir instructionlifeafterlifeinorderto achievespiri­tualliberation.I hopetoamassamountainofwell-earnedwealth,anddevotemyselftothepracticeofpuremeditationascalmasatranquillake,sothatImaybepresentatthefirstassembly underthedragonflowertreetolistentotheprofoundsermonsdeliveredbyMaitreya(theBuddhatocome).Whilebeingreborninallfour

formsofbirth,Ishouldalwayskeepinmind[theachievementofBuddhahood]forfullythreelongeons.

178

FascicleFour

Forfearthatmy readersshouldthinkmywordsgroundless,Iwillquotehereaspecimenof thewritingsoftheDharmamaster(Shanyu).Onceonthefifteenthdayofthesecondmonth,whenallthemonksandlaymenvisitedtheholysitesoftheDhyanamaster LangonSouthHill,mygreatteacheralsowenttoseetheunusualcelestialgranaryandheavenlywell,andworshipedatthemarvelousholynicheandsacredtemple,to whichwereofferedgiftsbroughtfromplacesathousandliaway.Atthattimeallofthe menoflettersundertheruleofthePrinceof Qiassembledatthatplace.Theywerewelllearnedandexpertinwritingcompo­sitions,vyingwithoneanotherinshowingofftheirliteraryca­pacity,andfeelingproudofthetalenttheyhad.Astheywished

tohavepoemswritteninpraiseofthestatueandthetempleofthelateVenerableLang,they recommendedthattheDharmamasterwriteaversebeforetheothers.Beingacompetentpoet,hedidnotdeclinetheoffer.Withaninkslabfullofblackink,hewieldedhiswritingbrushandcomposedapoemonthewallinacoherentwholewithoutabreak.Hewrotethepoemwithquickmovementsofthebrushinsuchaconsummatemannerthatnotasinglewordwasdeletedorchangedbymarkingitoutwithadot.Thepoemreads:

GloriousandradiantisthelightofthevirtuoussageWhosegoodcounseloverthevastseasspread.

Helivedinanemptyvalleyashisabode.

Animperialorderistreatedasamere vanity.Mountainsandriverslastthrougheternity,Humanaffairschangewiththechangesof time.Thetruestateof nonexistencehehasattained,Wecannowonlyseehisportraitleftbehind.

After readingthepoemscomposedbytheDharmamaster,thescholarswereashamedofthemselves, eitherputtingdowntheirwritingbrushes on pinetwigsorcasting their inkslabs intoamoun­tainnook.AllofthemremarkedthatitwasjustaswhenthebelleXishishowedherfeaturesandtherewasnoroomforthe

179

ARecordoftheInnerLawSentHomefromtheSouthSeas

uglywomanMomutounveilherface.Amongacrowdofgiftedscholars,nonecouldwriteaversetorhymewiththepoem.Themaster’sotherwritingsareincludedinaseparatecollection.

I,Yijing,respectfullyaddressthislettertothevenerablemonksofthegreatZhoudynasty[athome],fromwhomIhaveheardlecturesonvoidness,orwithwhomIhavediscussedthemeaningsoftheDharma.Someofthemhavebeenmyacquain­tancessincethedaysofmyyouth,whileothersbecamemybo­somfriendsinmymiddleage.Thesenioroneshavebecomespiritual teachers,andtheju n ioronesarecountedbythetensofthousands.

IntheabovefortychaptersIhaveonlybrieflydiscussedtheimportantpoints.WhatIhaverecordedarethecustomspracticedbytheteachersofIndiaatthepresenttime.WhatIhavewrittenisbasedontheholyteachingsof theBuddha;nothingisoutof mypersonalopinion.Ourlifeelapsesasswiftlyasarapidriver,andnobodyknowsinthemorningwhatwillhappenintheevening.BecauseIfearthatImaynotbeabletomeetandspeaktoyouinperson,Iamsendingyouthisrecordbeforemyreturn.Ihopeyouwillmakeastudyof itinyourspare time,sothatthewishof amanfarawayfromyoumaybesatisfied.Allmynarrationsare

234amadeaccordingtothetraditionoftheSarvastivadaSchoolandnotofanyothersect.

Ibegtorepeatthefollowingverse:

WithrespectIhavediscussedgooddecorum,Thegreatandcomprehensivecounsels.

Allbeingmadeinagreementwiththeholyteachings,Icannotsaytheyaremyemotionalacquisitions.

Forfearwemaynotmeetfacetoface,Isendyouthisrecordinadvance.

IhopeyouwillnotdiscardmyhumbleopinionsButwillacceptmysuperficialviews.

ForahundredgenerationsIfollowedthesacredtraces,Iwillsowtheseedsofgoodnessforathousandyears.

180

FascicleFour

MyrealwishistomakeShao-shiMountainequaltoVulturePeak,

AndtoputtheDivineLandonaparwiththeCityofthe

RoyalHouse.

EndofFascicleFour

181

Glossary

arhat:Aperfectsaintwho hasfreed himself fromthe bondsof samsara(q.v.)byeliminatingallpassions.TheidealoftheHinayana.

bhiksu:ABuddhistmonk.

bhiksuni:ABuddhistnun.

bodhisattva:AbeingwhohasvowedtoachieveBuddhahoodsomedayandwhoactivelyengagesinthespiritualpracticesofMahayanaBuddhismtoachievethatgoal.Thechiefcharacteristicsofthebodhisattvaare boundlesscompassionforall livingbeingsandclar­ityofcomprehension.

caitya:Ashrine.

chauri: Awhiskto keep off flies,oftenusedasan emblem of rank.eightfoldpath:(1)Rightview,(2)rightthought,(3)rightspeech,(4)right

action,(5)rightlivelihood,(6)righteffort,(7)rightmindfulness,and

(8)rightconcentration.Seealsofournobletruths.

fiveprohibitiveprecepts:ThemostserioussinsaBuddhistcancommit.Theyare:(1)patricide,(2)matricide,(3)killinganarhat(q.v.),(4)maliciouslycausingaBuddhatobleed,and(5)causingdisharmonyintheBuddhistOrder.

fournikayas:EarlyBuddhistscriptures,dividedintofourgroups,corre­spondingtofourofthe fiveAgamasofthePali Canon:(1)Dighanikaya,

(2)Majjhimanikaya,(3)Samyuttanikaya,and(4)Anguttaranikaya.

fournobletruths:(1) Life is suffering;(2)defilementsarethecauseofsuffering;(3) allsuffering canbeended;(4) the waytoendsufferingisbyfollowingtheBuddha’seightfoldpath(q.v.).

naga:Aserpentdeity,adragon.

nirvana:ThefinalgoalofBuddhistaspirationandpractice,astateinwhichallpassionsareextinguishedandthehighestwisdomattained.

183

Glossary

sam a d h i :A mental state of concentration and focusing of thought on oneobject.Alsocalledmeditation.

samsara:Theworldof suffering,death,andrebirth;the oppositeof nir­vana.

Sangha:InearlyBuddhism,thecommunityofBuddhistmonksandnuns.Laterthenamewasalsoappliedtothewholecommunity ofBuddhistdevotees.

sixarts(of Confucianism):Rites,music,shooting,horse-riding,writing,andmathematics.

sixp a ra m i tas: The six perfected virtues of a bodhisattva: giving, precept­keeping,patience,effort,meditation,andwisdom.

six ways:Thesix waysof being considerate orsociable,i.e.,being friendlyto one’s fellow practitioners in thought, word, and deed; sharing one’sgoodswiththem;livingvirtuously;andholdingtothetruth.

sramana:ABuddhistmonk.

tenabodes:Thesecondtenstagesofthefifty-twobodhistattvastages.tenprecepts:Anovicemonkornunvowstoabstainfrom(1)killingsen­

tientbeings,(2) stealing,(3)sexualintercourse,(4) lying,(5) usingintoxicants, (6) using bodily decorations or perfume, (7) singing, danc­ing,or viewingdances and plays,(8) sleepingin a largebed, (9) eat­ingafternoon,and(10)keepingmoneyorjewels.

tenstages:Thestagesofbodhisattvapractice.

threedivisions: The three categoriesof the Buddhist canon—(1) theSutras,the Buddha’s sermons,(2) the Vinaya(q.v.), rules of conduct for monksandnuns,and(3)theAbhidharma,commentariesontheBuddha’steachings.

threerealms:Therebirthcosmos,whichisdividedintotherealmof de­sire,therealmofform,andtherealmoftheformless.

threerefuges:TheBuddha,theDharma,andtheSangha.Socalledbe­causeonebecomesaBuddhistupon“takingrefuge”inthem.

threeYanas:Thethreepathstoenlightenment,whichare(1)thesravaka

vehicle(asravak abeing a followerof the so-called Hinayana),(2) thep ratyekabud d h a(self-taught Buddha) vehicle, and (3) the bodhisattvavehicle,otherwiseknownastheMahayana.

tope:ABuddhistreliquary;alargehemisphericalstructureenshriningBuddhistrelics.

184

Glossary

Tripitaka.Seethreedivisions.

triplegem:TheBuddha,theDharma,andtheSangha.

twelvelinksofthechainofcausality:Thetwelvefoldcycleofcauses

{nidanas)andconditionsthatmakeupthehumancondition,namely

(1) ignorance,(2) volitional activity,(3) consciousness, (4) name andform,(5) thesix senses,(6) contact,(7) perception,(8) love,(9)at­tachment,(10)existence,(11)rebirth,and(12)decayanddeath.

twelven idanas.S eetwelve links of the chain of causality.Vinaya:Rulesofconductformonksandnuns.

185

Bibliography

Hazra,KanaiLai.BuddhisminIndiaasDescribedbytheChinesePil­grims,A.D.399-689.New Delhi:MunshiramManoharlalPubs.,1983.

I-ching[Yijing],Memoire compose à l’epoque de la grande dynastie Tangsurlesreligieuxeminentsquiallèrentchercherlaloidanslespaysd’Occident,parI-tsing.TranslatedintoFrenchbyEdouardChavannes.Paris:E.Leroux,1894.

I-ching[Yijing],ARecord of the Buddhist Religionas Practisedin IndiaandtheMalayArchipelago(A.D.671-695).TranslatedbyJ.Takakusu.Oxford: Clarendon Press,1896. Reprint, Delhi: MunshiramManoharlalPubs.,1966.

Sen,SurendraNath.IndiathroughChineseEyes.SirWilliamMeyerEndowmentLectures.Madras:UniversityofMadras,1956.

187

Index

A

Abhidharma156

Abhidharma-kosa-sastra149,176

Abhidharma-samuccaya-sâstra

155,176

âcârya93,94,100,110

acupuncture119,120,125,126

Agamas156

Ajnâta-Kaundinya9

Alambana-parlksâ-sâstra156aims40,47,59,63,70,84,85,95,

101,115,156,159,162,164,

167,169

-begging12,144,162,176

bowl28,32,54,72,77,78,93,

94,96,101,111,116

-givers161,162,173

-giving40,44,46,47,82,164

AmitabhaBuddha143,170

AnalyticDictionaryofCharacters

171

Ananda10

Anathapindada159

Anitya-sütra79antarvâsa.Seeunderrobearhat(s)10, 70,91,101Aryadesa.SeeIndia

Aryamahâsâmghika-nikâya.See

MahâsâmghikaÀryamülasarvâstivâda-nikàya.See

MülasarvâstivâdaÂryasâmmitîya-nikâya.See

Sâmmitiya

Aryasthavira-nikâya.SeeSthaviraAsahga141,152,154,155

A-shanIsland12

Asoka,King14,71

Astadhâtu147,148

Asvaghosa139,144,152

Avalokitesvara124,143

B

BalahaMonastery63

Banan13

BandhanaMonastery37

Bao-fuMonastery90

bath(s),bathing43,44,66,79,88,

93,102,103,104,122,127,

135,137,138,158,173

bed(s),bedding62,105,106,118,

156,158,160,161,171

Bei-zhou167

Bhartrhari150,151

Bhartrhari-sastra150

Bhavaviveka152

bhiksu{s)(see alsomonk)14,21,36,59,61,62,66,79,80,101,

105,108,116,145,157,159,

160,161,164

bhiksuni(s)(seealsonun)75BhojapuraIsland12

Bianque120

Bi-jing13

Bimbisara,King14

Bing-zhou146

Biographiesof Eminent MonksWhoWenttotheWesternRegionsin Searchof theDharma2

Biographies of the TenVirtuousMonksofIndia152

bodhi51,171

Bodhidharma68

bodhisattva(s)14,15,50,153,165,

169,176

bodhitree29,68,107

bodhyanga(seealsosapta-bodhyahga)164

Bookof Changes149,150BookoftheThreeKhilas147BookonDhatu147

189

Index

BookofFilialPiety143boots(seealsoshoes)22,75

Brahmajâla-sütra3

Brahmans153,164brandingthescalp(seealso

burningof thebodyorfingers;self-immolation)2

Buddhacarita-kâvya144

Buddha-dharma50,153

Buddhahood92,108,178

burningofthebodyorfingers(seealsobranding thescalp;self-immolation)3,163,164,165,

166,174,175

c

caitya(seealsostupa)16,29,48,

84,103,108,113,114,137,

138

caitya-vandana(seealsocircumam­bulation)111,113,138

Calcutta1

callofnature26,88

Candragomin144,153

castration165,166

ceremony(ies)25,35,41,46,47,48,

80,82,83,85,94,95,96,99,

100,115,136,138,139,140,

175

chainofcausality8,51,143twelvelinksof78

Champa.SeeLin-yichant,chanting16,38,

138-140,144,170,172

China2,3,13,14,22,23,25,26,

30,34,37,38,40,42,46,48,

49,54,63,65,66,68,71,73,

75,77,81,82,83,84,86,89,

95,97,98,99,100,102,106,

108,115,117,119,120,121,

124,125,126,131,133,136,

140,142,143,145,146,147,

149,150,152,162,174

chopsticks28,86,96,130

circumambulation130civara. Seeunderrobeclepsydras131,132,133

clothes,clothing(seealsogarment)22,49,51,53,54,55,57,58,

61,65,66,67,68,69,75,77,

79,158,161,162,169

colds,treatmentof125,126,128

Composite Panegyric142

confession50,83,84,85,86,115

Confucius25,149,150

cremation79,113

Curni150

D

Da-daIsland12

dahara.Seemonk,juniorDajin2

daksinagatha47

danagatha42, 44,46,47danapati(seealsodonor)47Dao’an169,174

Daoxuan175

Dasasvadhyaya-vinaya(seealsoVinayaofTenReadings)19

DeerPark2,9,29,107,142

Deva152

Devaputra.SeeChinaDe-zhou167

Dharmagupta13,19,54

Dharmakirti152

Dharmapala151,152,153

Dharmaraksa153,174

Dharma-sangani156

dhuta48,64

dhutaguna145

dhyana(see alsomeditation)152DiamondSeat108,177

Dinnaga142,152,154,155

directorofduties82,132,133,135

disease(s)(seealsoillness)33,34,

46,104,106,107,118,119,

121,122,123,124,125,126,

127,172

Divakaramitra154

DivineLand(seealsoChina)15,16,125,146,174,181

donor(s)34,35,36,40,41,42,44,

45,46,47,48,58,84,85,101,

105

190

Index

DragonRiver9,154

drug(s)(seealsomedicine)124,125,127

DukeofZhou79

dung,ascleanser/purifier22,26,

35,45,79,105

dung,asmedicine.Seeunder

medicineDvarapati12,120

E

eightfoldpath64,143,156,165eightprecepts.SeeunderpreceptsEmperor(ofChina)16,68,155,

173

existence(seealsononexistence)77,145,154,165,167,176,

179

fiveformsof8

F

Fali174,175

fast(s),fasting26,78,85,93,102,

105,106,115,116,118,121,

122,123,124,125,126

fourfastdays61,156

fault(s)(seealsooffense)9,10,13,

14,16,17,22,25,27,32,33,35,

50,61,63,66,72,78,81,84,85,

86,87,89,96,106,109,111,

113,130,133,155,160,163,

165,166

Faxian174

feast(s)34,35,36,39,40,41,46

FengXiao-quan1

Fen-zhou90

filter(seealsostrainer)48,54

FiveClassics147

five precepts.SeeunderpreceptsFiveRanges122

flower(s)41,42,44,46,47,48,78,

84,96,102,106,108,135,136,

137,138,140,168,170,178

food10,11,23,24,25,28,35,36,

37,38,39,43,45,46,47,48,

49,50,51,53,57,59,60,62,

66,69,76,77,80,81,86,89,

94,101,104,106,107,118,

120,122,123,126,130,131,

156,158,161,162,163,166,

167,175

fivekindsof42impure24,26

pure24,25,26

sacrificial25,37

“untimely”118

fournikayas.Seefourschoolsfournobletruths14,135,143

fourschools11,13,14,56,57,64,

81,86,104,130

FourteenClassics153

FragrantMountain152

funeral(s)75,79,113

G

Gandhanadanas125

GangesRiver51,166

Gao-zhong,Emperor1

garment(s)54,55,56,58,64,65,

66,67,68,73,74,75,76,77,

79,88,93,94,117,128,141,

145,151,156,158,159,163,

169

gatha47

Gaya166

ghanda(seealsosandalwood)74

ghanta63,132,135

GoldRiver171

GreatBlackMountain12Guang-zhou1,13,177

guest(s)(seealsovisitor)37,62,

116,117

Gunamati152

Gunaprabha152

H

HanRiver174

Hariti36-37

He-lingIsland12

herb(s)(seealsomedicinalherbs)123,125,136

Hetu-mukha-sastra156

191

Index

Himalayas125

Hinayana12,14,50,142,165,168

HiranyavatiRiver10Houseof EasternWei176Hu25,41,48,66,67,111

HuaiRiver38,40,90

Huan-zhou13,65

Huili171

Huisi123

Huixiu174

Huiyuan174

Huizhi167,172,174,175,176

HymnofFourHundredVerses

140,141

Hymnof One Hundredand fiftyVerses140,141,144

illness34,37,56,67,86,107,108,

118,119,120,121,122,124,

126,127,142

image(s),holy,sacred(seealso

imageoftheBuddha)3,36,37,

38,41,44,45,106,107,109,

119,135,136,137,138,141,

159,160

imageoftheBuddha41,44,45,47,

48,67,71,72,84,106,107,

109,114,127,135,136,144-

145,175

bathingof44,48,106,135-138

jambunada-prabha159

incense37,41,44,46,78,84,96,

106,135,138,140,175

India1,2,3,4,11,14,16,17,18,

19,22,23,24,25,28,29,31,

34,35,36,37,39,41,42,43,

45,46,49,54,57,58,63,64,

65,66,71,73,74,76,77,81,

85,86,89,91,93,98,99,100,

101,102,104,105,106,107,

109,110,111,112,113,114,

115,116,117,118,119,120,

124,125,126,128,129,130,

131,133,135,137,138,139,

140,141,143,144,145,146,

147,149,150,153,154,155,

157,159,161,162,172,176,

177,180

Indra9,124,145

insect(s)9,28,29,30,31,32,35,

60,61,103,110,113,131,170

IslandoftheLion12

IslandsoftheNaked.SeeNicobarIslands

J

JadeMountain171

Jambudvipa13,14,65,125,131,

152

JambuRiver159

Jàtakamàla143,149

Jayàditya149

JetaGrove102

Jetaka.SeeSatavahana,KingJiao-zhou13

Jimutavahana144

Jinaprabha152

Jindynasty23

Jing-zhou90

Jin-ma149

Jin-yuValley167

JiRiver174

Jivaka123

Jnànacandra154

K

Kaccha1

kambala13,65,66

KangSenghui174

karmacdrya96,100

karmadana.Seedirectorofduties

Karma-siddhi-prakarana-sàstra

155

kàsàya.SeeunderrobeKasmira65,66

Kàsyapa-màtanga153,174

Kasyapiya19

kathina.Seeunderrobe

Knowledge of Words.See Sabda-vidyà

192

Index

Korea17

Kucha19

KukkutapadaMountain2,29

kulapati.SeelaymanKu-lun132,146

Ku-lunIsland12,13

Kumarajlva154

kundika(seealsowaterbottle)36,158

Kun-lun3,13,120

Kusinagara2,132

Kustana19

kusulaka.Seeunderrobe

L

laity(seealsolay)143,164

Lang167,173,179

Lankasu12

LargerSukhavativyuha-sutra175

Lata11,126lay

devotee93,94,151

disciple48,84,171

family78

follower9,44

-man,-men25,56,60,61,63,

65,68,71,72,74,76,82,101,

107,137,138,144,145,152,

155,162,164,172

-people24,43,44,65,86,126,

174

scholars58,120

-woman,-women75,77

Liangdynasty3

life-preservingvessel30,31

Ling-yanMonastery23,90,160

Lingyu79

Lin-yi12,13,65

lionseat139,160,161

LiSi168

LiturgyofMakingVows172livelihood59,60,61,63,77,78,

145,162,163,179

Long-men150

LotusSutra(see also Saddharma-pundarika-sutra)176

Luo-yang79,123,153

M

Madhyadesa.SeeIndiaMädhyamika14

Madhyäntavibhäga-sästra155

Magadha11,43

MahäbodhiMonastery2,38,65,

132

Mahäkäla37

Mahämucilinda38

Mahäparinirväna-sütra(seealsoNirvanaSutra)37

MaharajaMonastery29

Mahäsämghika11,12,13,64,161

Mahäsamghika-vinaya161

Mahayana3,12,14,50,89,142,

165

Mahâyânadîpa60

Mahäyanä-samgraha-sästra155

Mahäyanä-süträlankära-sästra

155

Mahesvara37,141,147

Mahisäsaka19

Maitreya165,178

Maitribala,King164

Malaya1

MalayuIsland.SeeSribhojaManjusri125,146

Mära10

massage113,116

Mätrceta141

matricide93

mattress(es)55,59,105,163

meal(s)22,23,24,25,26,27,31,

36,39,40,41,42,45,46,47,

48,70,76,84,87,97,98,101,

104,106,110,111,115,118,

120,130,163

mealtime(s)22,23,26,37,70

medicinalherbs119,120,126,128

medicine55,56,87,104,113,118,

119,120,121,123,125,126,

127,128,152,158,160

“dragon-decoction”127,128

dungas127,128

193

Index

fecesas127,128

“putrid-discharged”127,129

urineas127,128

meditation(s)17,18,77,120,123,

135,152,154,156,162,165,

172,178

four156

Memoirsof Eminent MonksWhoVisitedtheWesternRegionsinSearchof the Lawduring theTangDynasty,The17-18

merit(s)10,24,44,51,82,139,

150,155,157,170,178

MiddleWay142

Mingde173

MixedCompositePanegyric142Mo-he-xinIsland12

Mo-jia-manIsland12

Momu179

monastery(ies)2,3,16,22,31,36,

37,38,44,59,60,61,62,63,

71,72,74,79,80,81,82,83,

84,89,90,95,101,103,104,

107,115,116,131,132,133,

135,136,138,139,140,151,

161.162.163.169.170.171,

175

monk(s)2,3,4,9,10,11,12,13,

14,17,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,

28,29,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,

38,39,40,41,43,44,45,46,47,

48,49,50,51,54,55,56,57,58,

59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,

68,69,70,71,72,74,75,76,78,

79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,

89,90,93,95,96,98,99,100,

101,102,103,105,106,107,

108,109,110,111,112,114,

115,116,125,127,129,131,

132,136,137,138,139,140,

141,142,144,145,151,152,

155,156,157,158,159,160,

161,162,163,164,166,168,

communityof(see alsoSangha)21,59,80,84,85,98,101,106,

132,158,160,163

guest62,169

junior22,61,99,100,108-109,

112,116,180

senior67,108-109,112,116,

160,180

sixrequisitesof31,54,65,96,

161

MountDai90

MountHeng128

MountTai167,173,178

moxibustion120

Mulasarvastivada11,12,18,19,

80,93

Mulasarvastivada-nikaya-ekasata-karman80,93

Munda148

N

ndga(s)38,47,64,152

Nagarjuna33,142,144,152,154

NairanjanaRiver101

NalandaMonastery1,2,12,29,

34,43,63,67,83,98,103,132,

139,149,154,177

NicobarIslands1

NineClassics152

nirvana9,10,14,15,37,53,60,

94,96,113,135,156,157,175

NirvanaSutra (see alsoMahaparinirvana-sutra)34,

168

nonexistence145,154,179

NorthernRiver173

nun(s)2,25,61,64,75,76,77,78,

84

Nyaya-dvara-tarka-sastra149

Nyaya-mukha-sastra156

o

169.170.171,172,179offense(es)9,13,14,16,18,21,23,

assemblyof38,39,44,71,80,

81,82,83,84,93,115,127,

138,139,140,153,159

50,51,53,57,76,81,85,87,

94,99,129,175

parajika166

194

Index

sthulatyaya166

offering(s)24,25,36,37,38,39,40,

41,42,43,44,47,48,82,94,99,

136,137,138,140,164,165,

167,168,173

One ThousandCharacter Composi­tion143

Order166,171,175

ordination2,21,54,93,94,95,96,

98,99,100,108,111,112,115,

155,175

P

Pânini147,150

Paramârtha154

pârâmitâs141

Patanjali150

patricide93

Pen-penIsland12

Persian1,65,66

pillow(s)106

Ping-lin167

Po-liIsland12

Po-lu-siIsland12

Prajnâgupta152

Prajnâ-pâramitâ-sütra169

Pramâna-samuccaya-sâstra156

Prasenajit,King39

Prâtimoksa156

Pratïtyasamutpâda-vyâkhyâ-sâstra

155

Pravârana83

precept(s)9,12,69,77,78,99,102,

131,142,151,157,165,166,

175

eight156,157

five9,36,93,95,142,155,156

fiveprohibitive9

ten94,95,142,155

Prince of Qi.SeeQi,Prince ofPriyadarsana164

pupil(s)9,15,91,101,109,110,

111,112,113,114,115,116,

117,137,149,151,167,168

PureLand143,170

puremeat,threekindsof45,57

Q

Qi178

Princeof179

Qindynasties173,

Qi-zhou1,167

Que-li150

R

Rahulamitra62

Rajagrha2,9,29,36,68,91,102,

107

Ratnakuta-sutra62

Ratnasimha2,154

Recordof the Inner LawSent HomefromtheSouthSeas,A(seealsoRecordoftheSouthSeas)17,18

RecordoftheSouthSeas13

rest,resting(seealsosleep)35,62,93,94,105,116,118,121,125,

169

robe(s)10,21,28,35,36,45,48,

53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,

64,65,66,68,70,71,72,73,

75,76,77,78,81,82,84,87,

89,94,96,101,105,109,111,

113,114,115,145,146,151,

155,158,159,162,171

antarvasa54,55,75

civara45,54

kasaya29,45,54,71,72,76

kathina82

kusulaka76,77

samghati54,55,75

samkaksika55,64,73,75,76,

93

uttarasahga54,55,75

Rsisvara,King164

s

Sabda-vidya145,147

Saddharma-pundarika-sutra172,

173

Sakyadeva142

Sakyakirti154

195

Index

salatree(s)10,29,91,144

saliva26,33,48,87,121,122,123

salutation(s)32,87,89,96,104,

108,109,111,112,114,117

samadhi(seealsomeditation)120

Samanyalaksana-pariksa-sastra

156

Samghabhadra152,154

samghati.Seeunderrobe

samkaksikd.SeeunderrobeSamkhya8

Samksipta-sasana-vinaya-sutra66

Sammitiya11,12,13,64,129sandals (seea lsoshoes)75sandalwood45,136

Sangha59,60,61,62,63,64,91,

94,96,100,101,106,161

Sanskrit1,2,3,4,32,34,38,42,45,

47,56,67,73,75,76,85,86,

110,117,127,129,130,135,

145,146,148,159

grammar145-147,152

sapta-bodhyahga154

Sariputra89

Sarvastivada2,10,11,13,19,64,

73,74,129,180

SdstraontheGateofthePseudo­cause156

Satavahana,King142

ScriptureonProperTimesandImproperTimes130

self-immolation(seealsobrandingthescalp;burningof thebodyorfingers;suicide)2-3,163-

165,174

senseorgans172

Shanyu167,175,179

Shao-shiMountain68,181

Shen-tongMonastery167,173

Shi168

Shi-qu-ge121,149

ShiZhou168

shoes21,22,75,158,171

Si-chuan12

Si-chanMonastery23

S iddhavastu147

Siddhirastu.SeeSiddhavastu

Siksamana94,85Silabhadra152

Siladitya,King143,144

silk30,31,32,56,57,58,59,70,

72,73,76,90,136,137

Simhacandra152

Simhala65

Sindhu11,111

sittingcloth55,104-105,106

SixPadas156

sixrequisitesofamonk.Seeunder

monk

sleep,sleeping58,78,105-107,

133,149,175,178

snakebite124,128

SouthernValley173

SouthSeas1,2,11,12,13,14,16,

21,34,35,43,48,65,76,98,

100,105,106,107,120,126,

132,144,154,155,177

spoon(s)33,38,42,86,133

SpringandAutumnAnnals150

sramana137,166

sramanera94,95

Sribhoja1,2,12,131,154,155,

177

Sriksetra12

StanzaontheSixParamitas172

s th a vira100Sthavira11,12,64

Sthiramati152

strainer(seea lsofilter)30,31,32,93,99

stupa(s)(seea lsoca itya)79, 113-,127,137,138,161

Subhadra9

Sudana,Prince144

Suhrllekha142

suicide(seealsoself-immolation)3,165,166

Suidynasty168,172

Suli3,48,66,72,111,146

Sumatra.SeeSribhoja

summerretreat(s)1,21,62,82,83,

85,94,98,100,112

sundial(s)108,130,131

Sutra147,148,149,150

196

Index

Sutralahkara-sastra144

SutraonAvalokitesvara143

SutraonMedicalPrescriptions121

SutraontheParableoftheCrowandtheMoon29

syllogism(s)57,58,150,151

T

Tajiks65

talatrees103

Tamralipti1,2,39,60,63,139,

155,177

Tangdynasty1,72

Tanluan123

Tathagatagarbha154

teeth24,26,32,33,43,44,48,66,

79,88,93,102,103,104,106,

122,127

tenprecepts.Seeunderpreceptstenstages70,79

TextoftheDisciplinaryRules99

thirteennecessities54,55-56,64,

65

threehonoredones91,135,139,

142,149,156,164

three realms8,165threeYanas.SeeYanasTibet,Tibetans12,66

TiladhakaMonastery154

toiletjar,set44,88,89

TongYu149

tooth-cleaningtwig(seealsotoothwood)27

toothwood32,33,34,40,48,49,

87,101,109,110,111

Trikala-pariksd-sastra155

Tripitaka9,10,11,18,50,51,62,

72,112,120,154,166,167,

168,170

triplegem12,25,37,89,145,150,

155,174

Tukhara48

Tu-kuMonastery167,172

Turks66

twelveasceticpractices56twelvenidanas.Seechainof

causality,twelvelinksof

u

Udana158

Udyana19

umbrella29,71,72

Unadi148

undergarment(s)10,55,64,93,

103

Upadayaprajhapti-prakarana-

sastra156

upadhyaya99,100,110,111,112,

175

upasaka93

upasika36

uttarasahga.Seeunderrobe

V

Vaisali2,10

VaisesikaSchool8Vakyapadiya.SeeVakya-sastraVakya-sastra151

Valabhi149

Vasubandhu141,152,155

Vedas62,153

velacakra.Seesundial

Vijhapti-matrata-siddhi-sastra176

Vijhapti-matratd-siddhi-trirnsika-

kdrika155

Vijhapti-mdtrata-siddhi-vimsatikd-

karika155

Vimalakirti2

Vinaya3,9,10,13,14,15,16,17,

18,22,24,26,30,35,39,40,

42,45,49,50,53,54,56,57,

58,59,60,63,69,70,71,74,

75,77,78,79,81,82,83,84,

85,86,87,89,90,94,95,98,

99,102,103,109,111,112,

115,116,117,118,128,130,

131,145,152,157,159,160,

162,164,165,166,172,173,

Vinay1a7-5dvavimsati-prasannartha-

sastra129

VinayaofFourDivisions13

VinayaofTenReadings(seealsoDasasvadhyaya-vinaya)13

197

Index

Vinaya-pitaka(CollectionofBooksonMonastic Discipline)99,155,164

visitor(s)72,116-117

Visvantara,Prince144

Vital(-vrtta)151

voidness49,50,53,89,154,156,

180

twofold150-151,156

Vrtti-sutra149,150

VulturePeak2,29,40,68,101,

107,154,170,181

w

water7,9,16,17,25,26,27,28,

29,30,31,33,35,39,40,42,

43,44,46,48,61,69,74,78,87,

88,89,90,91,93,103,104,109,

110,111,113,117,121,122,

124,125,131,132,133,135,

136,137,138,152,158,168,

173

impure27

pure27,28,40,46,68

“timely”27,31

waterbottle(s),jar(s),pot(s)26,27,

28,29,30,31,35,72,90,91,

116

waterclocks.SeeclepsydrasWesternLand11,12,15

WesternParadise51

WhitePagodaMonastery90WildGoosePagoda4willow twig24,26,34,66wisdomofnorebirth53

Wu,Emperor3

Wuxing43

X

Xi’an4

Xiang-yang35

Xi-fang-shi(ARecordoftheWest)

48

Xishi179

Xuanzang4,72,154

Y

yaksa164

yaksi36

Yanas16

Yang,Prefectureof168Yang-zhou1,90

YangziRiver13,38,40,82,83,90,

122,174

YanHui25

YellowRiver68,174

Yijing1-4,10,12,14,17,33,41,

45,47,73,76,79,85,94,96,97,

98,101,108,110,124,127,135,

141,143,145,146,147,152,

153,154,155,156,157,159,

160,180

Yogacara14,15,154,155

Yogacara-sdstra155

YuBoya168

Yu-quanMonastery90

z

ZhangZhi168

ZhongYou168

ZhongZiqi168

Zhoudynasty180

198

AL i s to ftheVolum e so ftheBDKEnglishTripitaka

(FirstSeries)

Abbreviations

BDKEnglishTripitaka

yeh-ching()

Skt.Adhyardhasatika-prajnaparamita-sutra

BDKEnglishTripitaka

Vol.No.TitleT.No.

BDKEnglishTripitaka

BDKEnglishTripitaka

BDKEnglishTripitaka

Voi.No.

TitleT.No.

1642

1645

)1604

1611

1662

1665

Ta-ch‘eng-ch‘i-hsin-lun()1666

Mahäyänasraddhotpäda-sästra(?)

Na-hsien-pi-ch‘iu-ching(M)1670

Milindapanhä

Ta-ch‘eng-chi-p‘u-sa-hsüeh-lun()1636Siksäsamuccaya

Shih-mo-ho-yen-lun()1688

Pan-jo-po-lo-mi-to-hsin-ching-yu-tsan1710

Kuan-wu-liang-shou-fo-ching-shu()

San-lun-hsüan-i()Chao-lun(Htm)

Miao-fa-lien-hua-ching-hsüan-i

1753

1852

1858

1716

69Ch.

Ta-ch‘eng-hsüan-lun(-kM&sm)1853