Humans have let their creative juices flow since early times; the invention of fire, proto-writing, pottery, arts and crafts, agriculture and metal-making would bear ample testimony to this. Among early contributions to science and technology, the contributions made by early Mesopotamians are highly impressive. They made stellar contributions to metal-working, glass and lamp making, architecture, the production of textiles and weaving, flood control, water storage and irrigation. They also invented the earliest form of true writing, namely Cuneiform in the middle of the fourth millennium before Christ. Writing was usually mastered by scribes who were small in number in relation to the total population, and was composed on clay tablets. The Epic of Gilgamesh is among the world’s earliest literature, and is attributed to ancient Mesopotamia. Libraries are also believed to have existed in Ancient Mesopotamia. Mesopotamians made stellar contributions to mathematics, map making, medicine and astronomy too, though true intellectualism in the modern sense of the term probably did not exist then.
Egyptians made important contributions to new technologies and concepts such as mummification, medicine, irrigation, agriculture, glass-making, engineering, astronomy and grand architecture.They also invented paper, their own form of hieroglyphic writing, and built libraries, too. Indian science too took off in a big way in early ancient times, and Indian innovation can be traced back to Mehrgarh, a pre-Indus valley civilization site, now in Pakistan. Harappans developed metallurgy, irrigation, agriculture, architecture, their own form of writing besides other inventions and innovations such as weights and measures. Alphabetic scripts and iron-making took off in Post-Harappan cultures in the Gangetic plains, where there was some continuity with Harappan cultures, and Ancient Indians made contributions to mathematics, astronomy and medicine too. In the fifth century BC, the grammarian Panini made important contributions to the study of Sanskrit grammar. An account of Ancient India is provided by Megasthenes in his book Indica which is now considered to be lost. Indians also contributed greatly to philosophy and intellectual thought as evidenced by the Upanishads and Buddhism as well. In sum, Indianphilosophical traditions include both orthodox (or Astika) systems which include the Nyaya, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), Yoga and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (or Nastika) systems, examples being Buddhist and Jaina traditions. Ancient Indian scholars and intellectuals included Bhaskara, Varahamihira, Sushruta, Bramhagupta, Aryabhatta and Bihana.
The ancient Chinese too made significant technological advancements. Their innovations included numerous advancements in the fields ofmathematics,natural sciences,engineering,medicine,military technology,geologyandastronomy. Their important inventions include paper making, the abacus, the sundial, and the Kongming lantern. Their four great inventions are compass, gunpowder, paper making and printing. The Chinese also developed their own writing system, and contributed to literature in a big way. In imperial China, intellectuals were termed as scholar officials or scholar gentlemen who made important contributions to society. They had to pass examinations conducted by the king, and were then granted academic degrees.
Ancient Greece was a major centre of analytical thought and intellectualism, and intellectualism particularly flourished there between the fifth century before Christ to around the second century after Christ. Greek intellectual traditions were even superior to, and easily eclipsed later Roman traditions. Inventions that are often attributed to the ancient Greeks include the gear, screw, the watermill, metal casting techniques, the water clock etc. Greeks also made contributions to historiography, geography, and cartography. Greek thinkers have included Plato, Aristotle, Herodotus, Archimedes, Epicurus, Thales of Miletus, and many, many others. Roman intellectualism was not as sophisticated as that of the Greeks, though they made some important contributions to military technology and the art and the science of warfare. Some time before the rise of contemporary Western civilization, the Islamic golden age was a golden age of science and culture when polymath such as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Sina were born. Baghdad was then the centre of Islamic scientific traditions. Many ancient works particularly from Greek, were translated into Arabic and Persian during this period. Algebra, geometry, and calculus were developed during this period. This age is also characterized by moderate Islam, government sponsorship of intellectualism, the adoption of new technology, and an openness to diverse influences.
The modern glorious Western age of science, technology and intellectualism began with the renaissanceand the enlightenment.“Renaissance” isa French word which means “rebirth.”This term refers to a period in European civilization typically covering the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and following the dark middle ages that was characterized by a revival of classical learning and wisdom, and the desire to revive and surpass a golden past. The renaissance is believed to have begun in Florence, Italy, and then spread across Europe.The intellectual basis of the Renaissance movement was an early version ofhumanism, derived from the Roman concept “humanitas”and the rediscovery ofAncient Greek philosophyand values. This period is marked by a flourishing of art, architecture, literature, science and politics. The extended renaissance period saw great scientists and thinkers such as Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Tycho Brahe emerge. Leornado Da Vinci and Michelangelo were also important polymaths of this era.
TheAge of Enlightenmentalso commonly known as “theAge of reason”, was an important intellectual andphilosophicalmovement that began inEurope, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and had far-reaching implications worldwide. This period saw the emergence of contemporary values such as liberty, equality, fraternity, religious tolerance, individual rights, progress, scientific temper and a separation of the church from the state. This period was preceded by the scientific revolution, and the works of important philosophers such ad Francis Bacon, Montesquieu, Baruch Spinoza, Immanuel Kant, Rene Descartes, Adam Smith and John Locke. These were the important intellectuals of the period who also made several important contributions to human advancement. Important published works during this era were the “Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progres de l’esprit humain”, “L’encyclopedie”, “Letters on the English”, “The wealth of nations”, “A treatise of human nature”, and the “spirit of the laws”.[1][2]
Since then most important intellectuals have tended to be Western-based (intellectualism has also been western-centric, and most important technological advancements have occurred there) even though the East has already partly risen. Western intellectuals like Karl Marx and Noam Chomsky have exhibited decidedly Eurocentric approaches and tendencies, and this may partly stem from a lack of understanding or appreciation of other cultures. Countries like Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have taken off in a big way beginning from the end of the twentieth century particularly in varied fields of technology. They have however lagged behind in true science and true intellectualism. Non-western scholars and thinkers have blindly copied western concepts and paradigms in their own contexts without modification or alteration, and this holds true even for relatively much less intellectual pursuits such as the development of new local-specific economic models.India produced some great scientific minds in the early part of the twentieth century. Examples were Sir CV Raman, Srinivasa Ramanujam, Jagadish Chandra Bose, Satyendra Nath Bose, Har Gobind Khorana, and Yellapragada Subbarao. However, India’s scientific output suffered a stagnation in the opening decades of India’s independence. It is only in the past one decade, that we have seen positive winds of change blow. India now stands at number three in the world in term of the number of scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals, though the quality of academic scholarship may leave something to be desired in many cases.
Indian thinkers are mainly classified into left-leaning thinkers and right-leaning thinkers. We may note here that the idea of the left and right arose from a seating arrangement in the French assembly in 1789 (around the time of the French revolution); it is from here that these terms spread to other parts of the world, and the concept is similar in different countries across and around the world, though there are indeed some differences and variations from context to context. There is also some consistency of interpretation with regard to the terms left and right in the popular imagination, even though variations and misunderstandings sometimes still persist. Others have sought to measure left-right orientation through the use of measurement techniques, but such efforts may essentially be pointless. (Laponce 1981)
The far right is often associated with pre-scientific construct or non-scientific constructs in India. Therefore, we have Pushpak Vimanas and Ganesha statues drinking milk. Most of these ideas and approaches are naturally brushed away and shrugged away by any serious scientist worth his salt. While we do understand that left-leaning intellectuals and other intellectuals from the non-left have also attempted to evolve and change with the times particularly in the recent past (we owe a mountain of debt and gratitude to them for all their endeavours and contributions), we will still argue that the idea of intellectualism in general still needs a reboot, and that the present state of affairs is far from satisfactory. These are still too many ideological positions taken, and all current dispensations must gradually come to an end as a new generation of scholars and researchers take over the field and provide their crucial and critical inputs. Much of present-day intellectualism is also based on obsolete paradigms like a blind and a dogmatic opposition to globalization and capitalism regardless of whether it suits one’s own interests or not. This is particularly true of countries like France and India. Secondly, we also observe that the field is driven largely by the pursuit of individual interests, and more collective thought and robust back-to the basics theorization is required which must override all forms of vested interests.
We also emphasize the need for building robust intellectualism and scientific prowess in India and other developing countries such that their own causes and interests are advanced.This is somewhat lacking at the present day and time and the kind of intellectuals revolutions, renaissances and enlightenments that the Western world has witnessed have not replicated themselves in the rest of the world. Sometimes, concepts and ideas are borrowed from the first world slavishly, and without any modification, adaptation or reconsideration for local conditions. Therefore intellectualism is still widely driven by Eurocentric considerations and interests. All these factors have apparently therefore stymied progress in other parts of the world, and in some cases, prevented these regions from regaining their past glory. The concepts, ideas and ideals presented in this paper would overlap with our previously published papers, and other scholars and researchers must also drive this process forward; they must also collaborate with other developing countries through horizontal collaboration. Globalized science activity will also naturally benefit science in general. It is also allow for fundamentally better science to be birthed and gestated. This is yet another reason why we call for an “Indian enlightenment”, and enlightenments in other developing countries.
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
